Ultrasound assessment of glenohumeral dysplasia in infants.

Brachial plexus birth injury can lead to irreversible neuromuscular dysfunction and skeletal deformity of the upper extremity and shoulder girdle, ultimately resulting in glenohumeral dysplasia. Diagnosis and treatment of affected infants requires a multi-disciplinary approach in which imaging plays a vital role. While MRI is excellent for assessing both the shoulder and spine of these children, it is costly and requires sedation and is thus typically reserved for preoperative planning. US, however, is inexpensive, dynamic and readily available and provides excellent visualization of the largely cartilaginous glenohumeral joint. As such, it has become a highly useful modality during early diagnosis and follow-up of children with brachial plexus birth injuries. In this review, we describe the relevant anatomy of the glenohumeral joint, outlining the normal sonographic appearance as well as providing tips and tricks for identifying and characterizing pathology.