Bacterial survival strategies and responses under heavy metal stress: a comprehensive overview.

Heavy metals bring long-term hazardous consequences and pose a serious threat to all life forms. Being non-biodegradable, they can remain in the food webs for a long period of time. Metal ions are essential for life and indispensable for almost all aspects of metabolism but can be toxic beyond threshold level to all living beings including microbes. Heavy metals are generally present in the environment, but many geogenic and anthropogenic activities has led to excess metal ion accumulation in the environment. To survive in harsh metal contaminated environments, bacteria have certain resistance mechanisms to metabolize and transform heavy metals into less hazardous forms. This also gives rise to different species of heavy metal resistant bacteria. Herein, we have tried to incorporate the different aspects of heavy metal toxicity in bacteria and provide an up-to-date and across-the-board review. The various aspects of heavy metal biology of bacteria encompassed in this review includes the biological notion of heavy metals, toxic effect of heavy metals on bacteria, the factors regulating bacterial heavy metal resistance, the diverse mechanisms governing bacterial heavy metal resistance, bacterial responses to heavy metal stress, and a brief overview of gene regulation under heavy metal stress.