Astaxanthin from Haematococcus pluvialis: processes, applications, and market.

Astaxanthin is a xanthophyll carotenoid widely used in aquaculture and nutraceutical industries. Among natural sources, the microalga Haematococcus pluvialis is the non-genetically modified organism with the greatest capacity to accumulate astaxanthin. Therefore, it is important to understand emerging strategies in upstream and downstream processing of astaxanthin from this microalga. This review covers all aspects regarding the production and the market of natural astaxanthin from H. pluvialis. Astaxanthin biosynthesis, metabolic pathways, and nutritional metabolisms from the green vegetative motile to red hematocyst stage were reviewed in detail. Also, traditional and emerging techniques on biomass harvesting and astaxanthin recovery were presented and evaluated. Moreover, the global market of astaxanthin was discussed, and guidelines for sustainability increasing of the production chain of astaxanthin from H. pluvialis were highlighted, based on biorefinery models. This review can serve as a baseline on the current knowledge of H. pluvialis and encourage new researchers to enter this field of research.