Securing genetic integrity in freshwater pearl mussel propagation and captive breeding.

Securing genetic integrity is of key importance in conservation-oriented captive breeding programs releasing juveniles into the wild. This is particularly true for species such as the endangered freshwater pearl mussel (Margaritifera margaritifera) for which a number of captive breeding facilities has been established in Europe. The core objective of this study was to compare the genetic constitution of 29 cohorts of captive-bred freshwater pearl mussels from five different breeding facilities in Austria, France, Luxembourg and Germany, with their original 14 source populations from nine major European drainages, based on microsatellite markers. Captive-bred mussels represented 11 different genetic clusters, suggesting an important contribution of the breeding stations to securing the genetic diversity of the species. In almost all cases, the cultured offspring closely resembled the genetic constitution of the source mussels as revealed from the STRUCTURE analysis and the generally high assignment of offspring to the original source populations. The majority of captive-bred cohorts had an increased inbreeding coefficient and decreased genetic variability compared to their source populations as measured by AR and HO. Highest numbers of deformed juveniles coincided with very low levels of HO < 0.05. Since erosion of genetic diversity in captive breeding was mostly evident in individual year-cohorts, long-term breeding over multiple years can minimize such effects. The systematic selection of priority populations for conservation, effective breeding strategies avoiding effects of in- and outbreeding by genetically informed selection of parent individuals, and a network of collaboration among the different breeding facilities would be very useful to increase resilience and effectiveness.