An assessment of students' emotional intelligence, learning outcomes, and academic efficacy: A correlational study in higher education.

The purpose of this empirical study is to investigate the effects of Emotional Intelligence (EI) on learning outcomes (social, cognitive, self-growth outcomes and satisfaction with the university experience) of students in Chinese research universities. This study further examines the mediating role of student trust in teachers (emotional and cognitive learning) and learning orientation (commitment to learning) in the relationship between EI and learning outcomes. This intent of this study was to examine the direct effects of learning outcomes on students' academic efficacy (cognitive skills and standardised tests). This study used a sample frame of 454 students from research universities in China. The relationships were tested through the partial least squares' structural equation modelling method. The results reveal that EI has a significant impact on learning outcomes. Furthermore, an indirect relation between EI and learning outcomes is established through student trust in teachers and in the learning orientation. The direct relation between learning outcomes and student academic efficacy is also established. There is a lack of studies that investigate the relationship of EI, student trust in teachers, learning orientation, learning outcomes and student academic efficacy. This is one of the initial research studies that not only empirically examine the interface of EI and learning outcomes of students of Higher Education Institutions (HEIs) but offers insights into the existing literature by concurrent investigation of the mediating role of student trust in teachers and in the learning orientation in fundamental association, while explaining the association between learning outcomes and students' better academic efficacy.

1. Introduction

Higher education plays an extremely important role in the creation of a knowledge-based economy. For decades, Western higher education has been an inspiration for East Asian countries in terms of policies and practical procurement. However, East Asia and especially China has challenged the predominance of the education system of the ‘West’ [1, 2]. Research and higher education activities in China are at beginning stage [3] The nature of the activities on the part of Chinese students, the growth of professionalism in higher education institutions (HEIs), educational inequalities and rural-urban and gender disparities are vital factors underlying the infancy of research in China [4]. Zhoc, Chung [5], explained that Hong Kong HEIs have lengthened their three-year education system to four years within a discipline favouring early specialisation in a quest to enhance student learning outcomes (SLOs). Moreover, the latest research shows that to sustain SLOs, emotional intelligence (EI) can be introduced into the education system, as HEIs lack a clear and consistent EI strategy formulation and application, specifically in China [6].

Uiboleht, Karm [7], claimed that for more than two decades, research on SLOs in HEIs has investigated the characteristics of the learning environment that shape the SLOs. The learning environment is a combination of social, psychological and pedagogical contexts that enhance SLOs [8]. In recent times, pedagogical contexts in Chinese HEIs have undergone comprehensive reform [9] as the constructivist theory of learning [10] has expanded the development of more student engagement through student-centered learning environments, teachers’ facilitation of learning, learning assessment protocols, and metacognitive strategies. The ability-based theory of EI [11] assists students to manage their emotions for learning outcomes. These emotions further enable the students to learn something from every stressful situation, bringing the ability-based theory of EI into alignment with the constructivist theory of student learning. HEIs, additionally, favour SLOs in the shape of critical reasoning, creativity, extraction of social and emotional skills, academic self-efficacy, and autonomy and societal change through research and development activities. This process needs to proceed without interruption in China [5]. SLO assessment in the Chinese context furthermore needs comprehensive measures in order to equip the students with better learning outcomes [12].

Zhoc, Chung [5], argued that SLOs (social, cognitive, self-growth outcomes and satisfaction with university experience) are at the core of the educational goals of Chinese HEIs that deliver benefits even after the end of school life. King and Chen [9]andLuo, Xie [13] investigated whether EI in Chinese students has positively projected the desired outcomes while strengthening their cognitive, social and overall satisfaction with the university experience. Furthermore, students with a higher level of EI remain satisfied while sustaining social relationships and learning outcomes [14]. Moreover, students who are good at handling negative emotions reveal themselves as good academic learners who are more emotionally stable and enjoy superior cognitive processes [15]. Equally, a student’s positive emotions enhances intelligence through constant learning [16]. Similarly, positive emotions strengthen a student’s self-belief in his or her intelligence, planning, regulation, and monitoring for better learning outcomes [13]. Zhoc, Chung [5], asked future researchers to investigate the SLO in relation to EI in HEIs across countries and regions, including China.

Shafait, Yuming [17], termed teaching as an emotional practice involving relations with others. Hence, there is a dynamic connection between HEI teachers and students, which matters a lot irrespective of the endured experience. However, Karpouza and Emvalotis [18] pledged that teacher-student relationship in HEIs, despite its increased significance, is under-researched. Students’ trust in teachers depends upon the competencies of teachers that include but are not limited to teachers’ knowledge in a specific area, explanation of complex material, superior class management skills and readiness to respond to students’ queries [9]. If a teacher is not balanced in grading, engages in unfair treatment, fails to provide instant feedback, or exhibits awkwardness, i.e., emotional instability towards students, he/she is seen to lose the trust of students [19]. A teacher’s emotional instability causes emotional exhaustion in students that harms the expected outputs in relation with pedagogical interrelations and SLOs [20]. Students evaluate and trust teachers’ competence in relation to their gains in terms of emotional and cognitive learning [21]. Therefore, when teachers are warm and emotionally supportive, they provide students with a sense of trust, connectedness with the institutional environment, sense of security to explore new ideas and take risks, increased motivation, academic achievement, better retention, satisfaction from studies, and a positive climate in the learning environment, all of which are fundamental to SLOs [22]. Furthermore, Leighton, Guo [23], asked the future researchers to devise learning parameters by taking into account students’ trust in teachers and their empathetic behaviour in HEIs. Mitchell, Kensler [19], asked the future researcher to explore whether students’ trust in teachers has a role in their learning outcomes.

Learning orientation (commitment to learning) describes an environment of learning wherein knowledge is procured and upgraded through personnel [24]. Hult and Keillor [25], showed that HEIs offer learning environments that argue for continuous appraisal in teaching methods, faculty structure and modified curricula to induce students toward maximum possible learning outcomes. Therefore, learning orientation motivates students’ commitment for enhanced learning while demanding that they be familiar with impulsive learning environment [26]. Furthermore, students’ cognition, motivation, and behaviours are the by-product of their EI and the learning values on offer [27]. Learning orientation in higher education therefore induces students to be trained with upgraded knowledge, skills and abilities (KSAs) for better learning [28], encouraging them to utilise EI for better personal learning outcomes and overall improvement of the learning environment [5]. Moreover, institutions and teachers play a vital role for students in relation to their EI and learning outcomes [27]. Learning orientation and collective perspectives like organisational performance have been investigated previously [29]. However, the individual perspective regarding learning orientation is rarely taken into account [30]. Learning orientation is therefore considered with EI and SLOs in Chinese HEIs. Moreover, Learning orientation has been discussed earlier as mediated by Abdulai Mahmoud and Yusif [31].

Students’ academic efficacy (cognitive skills and standardised tests), being an antecedent of self-efficacy, elaborates students personal assessment of their skills and capabilities to plan and implement courses of actions to attain the desired educational learning [32]. Students’ academic efficacy reflects their psychological growth that enhances their knowledge, motivation, skills and abilities in pursuit of their learning process and outcomes [33]. Students’ academic efficacy acts as a consistent promotor of SLOs [34]. Similarly, students’ interrelations in HEIs comprehend their academic efficacy in relation with their learning and outcomes [35]. Iqbal, Latif [36], urged the future researchers to probe academic efficacy as an exogenous variable in HEIs and as such is taken opposite to the SLOs in Chinese HEIs in this study.

More specifically, this study strives to address the explained research gaps that clearly signify the importance of intended research. This research, further tries to assess a direct impact of students’ EI on their learning outcomes (social, cognitive, self-growth outcomes and satisfaction with the university experience) in universities in China. Similarly, the intended research investigates the potential mediation of students’ trust in teachers (emotional and cognitive learning) and learning orientation (commitment to learning) between EI and SLOs in Chinese HEIs. This research, additionally explores a direct impact of SLOs on the students’ academic efficacy (cognitive skills and standardised tests) in universities in China.

2. Theory inference, hypotheses development and conceptual framework

2.1. From ability to constructivism: Theory inference and application

This study is based on the ability-based theory of EI and the constructivist theory of learning. The theoretical inference and application is explained below. EI represents the perception, appraisal and channelisation of one’s own and others’ emotions for the sake of learning and countering problems [37]. EI is a blend of four vital emotional competences that are referred to as the ability-based model of EI developed by Mayer [11]. The first aspect coheres the social adaptation through perception and comprehension of emotions in self and others. The second aspect advocates the goals attainment through control and adjustment of the emotional situations of self and others. The third aspect argues for problem-solving through proper utilisation of one’s emotions. The fourth aspect delineates the emotions’ regulation over the time to sustain emotional and intellectual development through the self’s thoughtful ruling of emotions. This model has long enjoyed widespread acceptance in research and education [5, 38].

Constructivism theory advocates that ‘knowledge is constructed in the mind of the learner’ [39]. Learning is a practice that articulates logic relating to experience in the light of available knowledge. Learners’ knowledge is influenced by the constructs/insights available in the personal and social settings. Learners. i.e., students, conceptualise their specific meaning, building their own philosophies, opinions and experiences to manipulate communication within the any given environment and with teachers [40]. The constructivism theory of learning is the subject’s, i.e., the student’s, learning of new insights/ideas and/or changing their existing ideas as per the demands of environment. Learning is interpreted as conceptual change, i.e., the conceptualisation and appraisal of new concepts/methods that are needed as per the demands of the environment, inducing individuals to add to their learning outcomes. This aspect of learning is demoted as the ‘constructivist view of learning’ and entails that students construct/learn novel ideas and insights from available experience of teachers, colleagues, and the environment [41].

The advocates of the constructivist theory of learning argue that emotions are cognition-based and occur only in the face of social interactions [42]. Social interactions generate emotions that structure the experience and the learning, hence this process of ‘emotions leading to experience/learning’ is seen as a valuable part of constructivism [43]. It can be argued that emotions lead towards experience that enable the subject to construct from and learn out of each experience.

2.2. Emotional intelligence and students’ learning outcomes

Chinese HEIs are diverting their attention towards the students’ EI andto their learning outcomes as a vital educational output [5]. Asian education system administrators are a consistent advocate of EI and SLOs [5, 44]. This study is an extension in the Chinese context. Students go through different phases with different emotions (excitement, anxiety) during their educational life [9]. EI stimulates a student’s attention towards the learning process, encouraging them to maintain their learning and retention [44]. Tyng, Amin [45] have revealed that emotions play an important role in learning. An emotionally intelligent teacher is a better facilitator of quality learning [46].The way a teacher understands and handles emotions not only affects his or her instructional approach and the behaviour of learners but the educational atmosphere too [47]. Despite the increased importance given to the significance of emotions, the educational domain is neglected in relation to the research on the role of emotions [48]. This negligence is severe in view of the fact that emotions are a catalyst for learning [9]. The study of Chinese HEIs substantiates the argument that EI provides considerable assistance to students in their attempt to comprehend their learning outcomes [5, 13]. Based on our deductions, we formulated the following hypothesis:

Students’ EI exerts significant influence on Student Learning Outcomes in HEIs in China.

2.3. Emotional intelligence, students’ trust in teachers and SLOs

Trust is on the decline in educational institutions. This trust deficit, further worsens the services of educational institutions. Therefore, administration, faculty, and students cannot work together effectively [49]. Trust in educational institutions relies heavily on collaboration between teachers and students, faculty efficacy, and teachers’ continuous learning, which in turn stimulates students to trust their teachers and to capitalise on learning to the fullest [19]. Trust is essential for positive interactions between students and teachers and for productive learning [50]. Student and teacher interdependence and trust are instrumental for the formulation of learning strategies and outcomes [51]. EI is a positive predictor of trust in the education sector [52]. Trust depends heavily upon emotional connections and perceived competencies of individual members [53]. Teachers are vital while influencing the students’ trust through positive gestures [19]. Positive gestures are inferred through the incorporation of learning contexts that are shaped by the teachers for their students. The learning context can be further characterised by the teachers’ caring and inspiring association with students, designing lessons according to the potential of students, applying behavioural guidelines that stimulate students’ intrinsic motivation and acting as a role model for students in every sphere of life. Furthermore, EI plays a vital role in the professional development of teachers and students [9] that motivates them to shape their attitudes towards their students and learning outcomes [13, 54]. Emotions affect students’ trust in the teacher and, ultimately, in their learning [51]. Students’ trust in their teachers allows them to strengthen their abilities with intrinsic motivation to work collaboratively while fostering their learning outcomes [55]. Teachers’ emotional competence encourages a strong relationship with students that improves students’ emotional experiences and the related learning outcomes [56].

Learning is a composite process, that asks for interactions between teachers, parents and professional mates through discussion, brainstorming, and dialogue while restructuring existing knowledge [57]. Students’ trust in teachers is seen as an essential component in pursuit of learning as it empowers them to express freedom in their course of action while having an eye on the risk element in pedagogical relationships [51]. The risk element may be in the shape of distrust in the pedagogical alliance that demotivates the students in the course of learning; teachers are more consciously motivated for their personal benefit, i.e., paycheck, recognition, and promotion rather than the furtherance of the institutional mission/image [58]. Hence, inclusiveness is vital between students’ trust in teachers and learning [21], which requires both teachers and students to trust each other in order for both parties to realise their potential [22]. Moreover, trust has been used as a mediator in research [59], and a positive mediation is endorsed in the described study. Based on our deductions we formulated the following hypotheses:

There is a significant influence of EI on students’ trust in teachers in Chinese HEIs.

There is a significant influence of students’ trust in teachers on learning outcomes in Chinese HEIs.

Students’ trust in teachers mediates between EI and learning outcomes in Chinese HEIs.

2.4. Emotional intelligence, learning orientation (commitment to learning) and SLO

In recent years EI has attracted immense attention in the education sector [60], including observations in relation to SLOs [61]. However, it is established that inadequacy regarding EI management badly affects the long term development of students and especially of their learning outcomes [5]., It is necessary for institutions and teachers to influence and guide students to observe specific stimuli such as the selection, organisation, and integration of information for their learning and development [27]. Organisational polices and its practitioners, i.e., teachers, in the shape of learning orientation, influence the students to opt for the right choice among the aroused stimuli [62] while utilising EI to its fullest [61]. Emotionally intelligent students experience and foster more cooperation and learning [9], thus showing a rigorous commitment to learning and to outcomes [63]. EI stimulates the students’ cognitive variables for better learning outcomes [5] and when coupled with organisational learning commitments and policies of control, EI facilitate learning. It is obvious to invoke the interconnectedness of EI, learning outcomes, and the commitment to learning [63].

Constructivism theory, a learning view, motivates individuals to play an active part in their knowledge acquisition process that is further divided into cognitive (personal) and social (organisational) constructivism [33]. The latter features immediate peers and organisational policies to motivate individuals to act accordingly to foster their learning commitments to overall learning outcomes with EI [63]. Learning orientation has been used as a mediator in research by Abdulai Mahmoud and Yusif [31]. Therefore, based on our deductions, we formulated the following hypotheses:

There is a significant influence of students’ EI on their learning orientation in Chinese HEIs.

There is a significant influence of students’ learning orientation on learning outcomes in Chinese HEIs.

Students’ learning orientation mediates between EI and learning outcomes in Chinese HEIs.

2.5. Students’ learning outcomes and students’ academic efficacy

Social interactions enable the students to determine the surroundings as learning environment for their better personal and academic self-efficacy [33]. Self-efficacy for learning is personal competence, i.e., judgement for the successful execution of set plans for specific academic achievement [64]. Students’ academic efficacy (cognitive skills and standardised test results), a psychological build in the learning process, is their confidence in personal capabilities that regulates their motivation for learning and academic achievements [65]., Self-efficacy judgements induce students to utilise their perseverance and motivation to counter the challenges and enhance their learning outcomes [66]. Damian, Stoeber [34], established a positive relationship between academic self-efficacy and SLOs in educational institutions. HEIs are nowadays exerting efforts to explore and utilise the methods to enhance academic-efficacy beliefs that motivate students to successfully attain set academic and learning outcomes [33]. Van Dinther, Dochy [35], delineated students’ academic efficacy that serves as a motivational tool for their learning in HEIs. This motivation for learning may appear in the shape of students’ confidence in pursuit of a task; students’ interpretations of a prior task’s results and their application in like situations; and students’ psychological and physiological persuasions. Motivation for learning therefore enables the students to rightly assess their efficacy in relation to their academic activities and assertions. Schunk and Ertmer [67] established that within learning environments there should be regular self-evaluation opportunities for students to ascertain their academic efficacy perceptions. Valuable teaching and accessible teachers play a positive role in the growth of students’ learning and academic efficacy [68]. Based on our deductions, we formulated the following hypothesis:

H4: There is a significant influence of students’ learning outcomes on students’ academic efficacy in HEIs in China.

2.6. Conceptual framework

Fig 1 illustrates the conceptual Framework that labels the flow of relationship between emotional intelligence, and students’ learning outcomes.

Fig 1

Conceptual framework.

Note: IV = Independent Variable, DV = Dependent Variable.

3. Methodology

3.1. Research universities

HEIs play a vital role in the in the economic and social development of nations [69]. A rising world power, China is utilising research and development activities through HEIs [70]. The Higher Education Commission of China applies practical measures for the research and development progression [71]. Despite the applied measures, China has to cover a long distance in order to be a research giant in the certified community [4]. Consequently, it is vital that HEI students are trained with EI and learning outcomes to meet the demanding challenges of the current age [5]. The challenges for students may arise from within the institution, i.e., academic achievements; establishing certain values, attitudes and tactics for learning; handling pressure and/or stressful emotional situations calmly and intelligently [72]. EI and students’ learning outcomes enable them to achieve success beyond their formal educational stint, i.e., in their working life [5]. The considered study is meant to assess and establish the relationship between students’ EI, SLOs, students’ trust in teachers (emotional and cognitive learning), learning orientation (commitment to learning) and students’ academic efficacy (cognitive skills and standardised test results) in China.

3.2. Population, sample, and data collection

Students of Chinese public HEIs were taken as the target population from Xi’an, Sichuan and Beijing. The three selected provinces retained the major ratio of gross enrollment rate in higher education with provision of better possible facilities [73]. Six universities each from the three mentioned provinces were targeted for data collection from September 2019 to December 2019. Final-year university students were consulted across the different academic departments/schools to assess their emotion-based learning outcomes that facilitate their academic efficacy. It is established that EI has been used in relation with students’ samples in HEIs [5]. The survey questionnaire was delivered in electronic (WeChat app and email addresses) and paper form to collect the data during class sessions. Further volunteer participants were considered for possible responses.

Questionnaires in paper from were collected by the involved research team and through the utilisation of third-party services that were hired for data collection. Electronic questionnaires were managed through prior consultation with teachers and administered through e-groups. A total of 900 questionnaires [To ensure the ethical consideration, the written consent was obtained from Northwestern Polytechnical University Research Ethics Review Committee to interact and gather data from students for research purpose. Therefore students (only volunteers) were informed and engaged for data collection through the written consent apprised by the University Ethical Statement. Hence, consent was informed through the officially approved annexed written statement with questionnaire. Further, the considered study is not retrospective in nature nor it gazed at archived samples].

Were administered through convenience sampling, which is proved to be a fast and inexpensive manner of data collection most often used for social and business studies [36]. A total of 477 questionnaires (53%) were received back. 23 questionnaires were found to be incomplete, hence 454 questionnaires were considered for statistical analysis. Considering the complexity of the proposed research model, the sample size is sufficient for use of Structural Equation Model (SEM) to analyse the complicated path model as suggested by Kline [74]. Table 1 represents the profile of respondents as follows:

Table 1

Respondents’ description.

Demographic variables	Frequency	Percentage
Questionnaires sent/delivered	900	100
Questionnaires received back	477	53
Discarded	23	4.8
Questionnaires useful for analysis	454	50.4
Ratio of questionnaires received in paper form	320	70.1
Ratio of questionnaires received from e-groups	134	29.5
Province
Xi’an	168	37
Chengdu	151	33.3
Beijing	135	29.7
Discipline
Management Sciences	156	34.4
Engineering	161	35.5
Others	137	30.2
Gender
Male	241	53.1
Female	213	46.9
Education
Bachelor’s degree	247	54.4
Master’s degree	207	45.6
University Name
Northwestern Polytechnical University	28	6.1
Shaanxi Normal University Xi’an	30	6.6
Northwest University Xi’an	33	7.2
Northwest Agriculture and Forestry University Xi’an	27	5.9
Changa’an University	29	6.4
Xi’an Architecture University	21	4.6
Sichuan University	23	5.1
Southwestern University of Finance and Economics	26	5.7
Sichuan Normal University	29	6.4
Chengdu University	22	4.8
Chengdu University of Technology	31	6.8
Chengdu University of Science and Technology	20	4.4
Beijing City University	24	5.3
Beijing Foreign Studies University	23	5.1
Beijing Forestry University	21	4.6
Beijing Information Science and Technology University	22	4.8
Beijing Normal University	20	4.4
Central University of Finance and Economics	25	5.5

3.3. Measures of the concepts

In the considered study, all of the 75 measurement items were taken from available research. However, minor adjustments were made to the phrasing of the items to reflect the university setting [36]. The questionnaire utilised a five-point Likert scale from ‘1’ meaning ‘strongly disagree’ to ‘5’ meaning ‘strongly agree’.

3.3.1. Details vis-a-vis measurements’ selection

It is suggested that a validated instrument should be applied for the measurement of central variables in the research studies as it reduces the response error while maximising the data validity [75]. EI being a central variable in the considered study, the 33-item Emotional Intelligence Scale (EIS) [76] was implied for the data exploration. Furthermore, the internal consistency of the EIS scale was reported by Zhoc, Li [77] to range from 0.85 to 0.93. The EIS scale has six key dimensions and each dimension is illustrated through at least one example in the following Table 2:

Table 2

Emotional Intelligence Scale (EIS).

S. No.	Dimension	Example
1.	Appraisal of emotions in the self	I am aware of my emotions as I experience them
2.	Appraisal of emotions in others	I know what other people are feeling just by looking at them
3.	Emotional regulation of the self	I seek out activities that make me happy
4.	Emotional expression	I know when to speak about my personal problems to others
5.	Emotional regulation of others	I help other people feel better when they are down
6.	Utilisation of emotions in problem solving	I use good moods to help myself keep trying in the face of obstacles

The inventor of the term ‘Emotional Intelligence’, Salovey and Mayer [78], categorised EI into three broad groups, i.e., appraisal and expression of emotion (in self and others), regulation of emotion (in self and others), and utilisation of emotions in solving problems. The first category, i.e., appraisal and expression of emotion, is comprised of appraisal and expression of emotions in self and appraisal of emotions in others. Appraisal and expression of emotions in self consist of verbal and non-verbal cues and in relation to others consist of non-verbal perception and empathy. Secondly, regulation of emotions in self and others regulates, controls and normalises the emotions in self and others. Thirdly, utilisation of emotions in solving problems consists of motivation, creative rationality, flexible planning, and readdressed attention [76]. The 33-item Emotional Intelligence Scale (EIS) is divided into six dimensions keeping in mind the categories of self and others relating to appraisal and expression of emotion, regulation of emotion, and utilisation of emotions in solving problems. This scale further covers social and cognitive functions of expression, regulation, and utilisation of emotions.

In the follow-up survey, there was a 16-item Learning Outcomes Scale (LOS) that was designed to help HEIs’ personnel self-evaluation on the achievement of learning outcomes. The scale was devised with reference to the institutional learning outcomes for HEIs’ personnel of the sampled universities, which could be broadly categorised into the cognitive, social and self-growth outcomes of HEI personnel. The learning outcome’s construct was borrowed from Zhoc, Chung [5].

Students’ trust in teachers, a 15-item scale developed by Wheeless and Grotz [79] in order to measure the individualised trust in relation to emotional and cognitive outputs. The internal consistency of the scale was reported as 0.92 by Wheeless and Grotz [79].

The language for the 4-item scale of learning orientation (commitment to learning) is well established in the literature. The specific wording of items for the commitment to learning construct came from [80]. For the considered study, the wording is modified in order to match the explained context of the HEIs. The applied construct is validated through practical measures over the years (Garratt 1987, Tobin, 1993).

Students’ academic efficacy, a 7-item scale, was borrowed from Midgley and Urdan [81]. The borrowed scale exhibited good construct validity. The internal consistency of the scale was reported as .80 by Midgley and Urdan [81]. Further, sources of measurement instruments are reflected in Table 3.

Table 3

Source of measurement instruments.

Variable	Dimensions	No. of Items	Source
Emotional Intelligence		33	Schutte, Malouff [76]
Student Trust in Teacher		15	Wheeless and Grotz [79],
Learning Orientation	Commitment to Learning	4	Galer and Van Der Heijden [80],
Learning Outcomes	Cognitive Outcomes	5	Zhoc, Chung [5],
	Social Outcomes	5	Zhoc, Chung [5],
	Self-growth Outcomes	5	Zhoc, Chung [5],
	Student Satisfaction with University Experience	1	Zhoc, Chung [5],
Students’ Academic Efficacy		7	Midgley and Urdan [81],

4. Data analysis procedure

4.1. Data analysis techniques

The existing study applied the quantitative technique with a cross-sectional research design. Partial least squares structural equation modelling (PLS-SEM) technique was used to analyse the data through the SmartPLS 3.0 software package [82]. PLS-SEM is trending in business, management, and social sciences research for data analysis and is seen as a reliable data analysis tool to analyse the small sample size and non-normal data [83]. PLS-SEM primarily aims at testing existing theories and involves complex model structures [84]. PLS-SEM undertakes a two-phase analysis consisting of a measurement model specification and a structural model evaluation [17]. The measurement model specification ensures a smooth drive for the structural model only after a precise analysis of the constructs and carries forward only the constructs having good indicator loading, convergent validity, composite reliability (CR) and discriminant validity. The structural model evaluation, on the other hand, is meant for assessing path coefficients and testing their significance through the bootstrapping technique. The Preacher and Hayes [85] approach was followed for mediation analysis as it is the more rigorous procedure to test mediating effects and is more suitable to use with the PLS-SEM technique [86].

4.1.1. Measurement model assessment

In order to endorse the reliability and validity of the constructs and their dimensions, the measurement model was readied in line with the submissions of Hair [87]. Initially, 75 indicators were included in the model, while analysing the measurement model, all the factor loading was above or closed to the recommended value of 0.60. All 75 indicators were analysed intact from removal. Similarly, the AVE and CR of all the constructs are equal to or exceed the recommended values of 0.50 and 0.70, respectively. Thus, convergent validity and reliability are established. Table 4 represents the factor loadings, alpha coefficient, composite reliability and Average Variance Extracted. As shown in Table 5, discriminant validity is also confirmed according to the criterion suggested by [88]. The overall results of the confirmatory factor analysis indicate that the model is adequate for structural evaluation.

Table 4

Item loadings, reliability and convergent validity.

	Λ	α	CR	AVE
Emotional Intelligence		0.978	0.979	0.589
EI1	0.735
EI2	0.728
EI3	0.846
EI4	0.707
EI5	0.771
EI6	0.755
EI7	0.786
EI8	0.692
EI9	0.665
EI10	0.811
EI11	0.735
EI12	0.749
EI13	0.720
EI14	0.751
EI15	0.831
EI16	0.834
EI17	0.779
EI18	0.754
EI19	0.824
EI20	0.835
EI21	0.748
EI22	0.813
EI23	0.820
EI24	0.710
EI25	0.809
EI26	0.838
EI27	0.762
EI28	0.817
EI29	0.733
EI30	0.698
EI31	0.721
EI32	0.758
EI33	0.736
Students’ Trust in Teachers		0.971	0.974	0.712
STT1	0.847
STT2	0.876
STT3	0.835
STT4	0.860
STT5	0.847
STT6	0.881
STT7	0.836
STT8	0.898
STT9	0.826
STT10	0.815
STT11	0.845
STT12	0.783
STT13	0.804
STT14	0.885
STT15	0.813
Learning Orientation
Commitment to Learning		0.874	0.914	0.726
CL1	0.849
CL2	0.873
CL3	0.821
CL4	0.865
Learning Outcomes
Cognitive Outcomes		0.933	0.949	0.789
CO1	0.867
CO2	0.911
CO3	0.871
CO4	0.915
CO5	0.878
Social Outcomes		0.923	0.942	0.765
SO1	0.871
SO2	0.888
SO3	0.861
SO4	0.887
SO5	0.866
Self-growth Outcomes		0.911	0.934	0.738
SGO1	0.813
SGO2	0.841
SGO3	0.914
SGO4	0.866
SGO5	0.856
Student Satisfaction with University Experience		1.000	1.000	1.000
SSUE1	1.000
Student Academic Efficacy		0.920	0.936	0.677
SAE1	0.795
SAE2	0.803
SAE3	0.867
SAE4	0.874
SAE5	0.754
SAE6	0.871
SAE7	0.785

Table 5

Discriminant validity (Fornell and Larcker criterion).

	CO	CL	EI	SAE	SGO	SO	STT	SUE
CO	0.888
CL	0.827	0.852
EI	0.871	0.844	0.767
SAE	0.822	0.851	0.722	0.823
SGO	0.881	0.839	0.703	0.813	0.859
SO	0.827	0.820	0.740	0.815	0.842	0.875
STT	0.733	0.822	0.732	0.746	0.853	0.733	0.844
SUE	0.774	0.813	0.706	0.792	0.837	0.757	0.782	1.000

Notes: The data in the diagonal (in italic) is the square root of AVE of the construct.

4.1.2. Structural model assessment

After obligatory assessment of the measurement model, analysis of the structural model was performed in the second stage. The hypotheses were tested in a series of steps. First, the direct effects of EI on students’ trust in teachers, learning orientation and learning outcomes were examined. The direct effects of students’ trust in teachers and learning orientation on learning outcomes were investigated. In the second step, the direct effects of learning outcomes on students’ self-efficacy were examined. Bootstrap resampling method with 5,000 resamples [82] was used to determine the significance of direct paths and estimate standard errors. Table 6 lists the test results of hypotheses proposed for direct relationships. As per the results shown in Table 6, there is a significant positive and direct effect of EI on students’ learning outcomes (β = .13, t = 3.23, p < .001). H1 therefore is accepted. EI has a significant and positive effect on students’ trust in teachers (β = .93, t = 58.26, p < .001) and students’ trust in teachers has a significant and positive effect on students’ learning outcomes (β = .77, t = 21.29, p < .001); hence, H2 and H3 are accepted. EI has a significant and positive effect on learning orientation (commitment to learning) (β = .88, t = 39.12, p < .001) and equally so, learning orientation (commitment to learning) has significant and positive effect on students’ learning outcomes (β = .09, t = 3.01, p < .001). H4 and H5 are therefore accepted. Students’ learning outcomes have a significant and positive effect on students’ academic efficacy (β = .93, t = 62.33, p < .001), hence H6 is accepted.

Table 6

Results of structural model path coefficient (direct relationships).

Hypotheses	Relationship	B	SD	t-value	P Values	Decision
H1	EI → LO	0.135	0.041	3.233	0.001	Supported
H2	EI → STT	0.931	0.016	58.265	0.000	Supported
H3	STT → LO	0.771	0.036	21.291	0.000	Supported
H4	EI → CL	0.883	0.023	39.120	0.000	Supported
H5	CL→ LO	0.090	0.029	3.019	0.003	Supported
H6	LO → SAE	0.937	0.015	62.335	0.000	Supported

= Emotional Intelligence; = Learning Outcomes; = Students’ Trust in Teachers; = Commitment to Learning; = Students’ Academic Efficacy.

4.1.3. Mediation analysis

The approach of Preacher and Hayes [85] was followed for mediation analysis as it is the more rigorous procedure to test mediating effects and is more suitable to use with the PLS-SEM bootstrapping technique [83]. To examine the mediation of students’ trust in teachers and learning orientation, the method of Preacher and Hayes [85] was applied and p-values for indirect effects were obtained through bootstrapping with 500 resamples [82]. The results indicate that there is a significant indirect effect of EI on learning outcomes through the mediation of students’ trust in teachers and learning orientation (β = 0.718, p<0.001; β = 0.079, p<0.001). The results were substantiated and show that the effect of EI on learning outcomes passes partially through students’ trust in teachers and learning orientation. Results of the mediation analysis are presented in Table 7.

Table 7

Summary of mediation results.

Hypothesis	Indirect Path				Mediation Effect β	t-value	Decision
	Path	β	Path	β
H7a	EI → STT	0.931	STT → LO	0.771	0.718	20.85	Supported
H7b	EI → CL	0.883	CL → LO	0.090	0.079	3.024	Supported

Bootstrapping (n = 500). *P<0.001.

5. Discussion, conclusion, and practical implications

5.1. Discussion

The considered research investigated the influence of EI on learning outcomes (social, cognitive, self-growth outcomes and satisfaction with university experience) of students in Chinese HEIs, the indirect influence of students’ trust in teachers (emotional and cognitive learning), and learning orientation (commitment to learning) between EI and SLOs while having a direct influence of SLOs on students’ academic-efficacy (cognitive skills and standardised tests). Basing on the literature, we hypothesised that the more the students are equipped with emotional stability, the more they learn throughout their academic careers. We further postulated that students’ emotional and cognitive learning through their trust in teachers and their learning orientation foster their learning outcomes. We anticipated a positive correlation between students’ learning outcomes and their academic efficacy in Chinese HEIs.

Findings of this study contribute to the literature in multiple ways. First, this study supports that students’ EI may facilitate their learning outcomes in higher education. Results of the study demonstrate that EI significantly and positively affects SLOs (social, cognitive, self-growth outcomes and satisfaction with university experience) in Chinese HEIs. These results endorsed the previous findings by Zhoc, Chung [5] in Hong Kong HEIs. HEIs, in the modern world, create value through available knowledge and skills in order to remain competitive. HEIs are nowadays, eager to hire personnel who possess a fair degree of EI to cope with the pressure to develop the mechanisms for learning outcomes [3], who in turn enable the students to counter every situation with EI and to emerge as an efficient learner out of any given pressure situation [5]. The investigation relating to EI and SLOs in HEIs showed that students with greater ability to handle emotions and pressure situations are more likely to enhance their learning outcomes. The considered sample of students exhibited excitement while explaining their experiences of emotional situations and learning under pressure of crunch situations. It was made possible by either through filling in the questionnaire face to face or through an electronic venue, i.e., WeChat app and/or email feedbacks.

This study endorses the assumed hypothesis that students’ trust in teachers validates the interconnection between EI and SLOs in HEIs. The findings comprehend the previous research by Mitchell, Kensler [19]. Students in China demonstrate personal initiative to take the advantage of available resources to develop their EI [5], maximising their learning outcomes and fostering their academic-efficacy [33].Students’ trust in teachers as mediators [59] persuades those in possession of the trust to strive for EI development and learning improvements [62]. For better SLOs, it is necessary for both teachers and students to foster a trustworthy and friendly environment that in turn encourages teachers and students to demonstrate resolve in every situation for survival and learning [50]. The emotionally-intelligent duo, i.e., teachers and students, prospers in their respective professional growth by availing every opportunity for learning and competition [9]. The further results of the considered study endorse the assumed correlation of students’ emotional and cognitive learning through proper utilisation of their EI. It is on HEIs’ behalf to inspire and help the concerned professionals, i.e., students, teachers and administrative individuals, to understand, learn and exhibit EI for better learning outcomes through timely scheduled workshops, seminars and training sessions.

Similarly, the study substantially validates the findings regarding the learning orientation in terms of organisational policies and teachers’ cooperation in relation to students’ EI and their learning outcomes in Chinese HEIs rendering this study a consequential piece of research by Poulou [27]. Learning orientation is used as a mediator [31] and is a reason for professionals to grasp the opportunities presented by EI to improve their learning outcomes in the ever-changing circumstances of HEIs [5]. HEIs nowadays therefore have a dire need to establish organisational policies in order to enable the students and teachers to be more adaptive with respect to learning [27]. This process to some extent will empower students to refresh their emotional, cognitive, and learning commitments and outcomes. Students are subject to evaluation regarding their emotional stability, cognitive ability, and learning outcomes in relation to their institute’s present and planned learning outcomes for them. HEIs may lessen or altogether eliminate students’ emotional instability and encourage them toward better learning during and beyond their academic lives.

Finally, the considered study investigated the relationship between SLOs and students’ academic-efficacy in Chinese HEIs. It was hypothesised that SLOs argue for better students’ academic efficacy. The findings validate the argued relationship with an endorsement of the research by Alt [33]. SLOs are multifaceted, i.e., social, cognitive, self-growth outcomes and characterised by satisfaction with the university experience, which together is an additional argument for multiple subdimensions [5]., The need of the hour is to plan comprehensive efforts for implementing and improving students’ academic-efficacy in HEIs [33]. HEIs should provide the opportunities for students to enhance their abilities, i.e., EI, academic efficacy through ample interactions between students, teachers, and colleagues. This in turn will boost the students’ confidence in their abilities, convincing them to turn every situation into an opportunity to learn. The ever-changing educational learning scenarios around the world suggest that institutions and students alike avail every possible opportunity for the increase of academic/operational efficacy thereby learn how to better meet the demands and challenges of an ever-more competitive world.

5.2. Conclusion

This study adds value to the students’ EI and their learning outcomes literature in Chinese HEIs through the exploration of students’ trust in teachers and in their learning orientation. Students’ academic efficacy was comprehended in relation to SLOs. The findings validate that EI, social, cognitive, and self-growth outcomes and students’ satisfaction with the university experience have value for HEIs. It is necessary today that policymakers come up with viable courses of actions to successfully implement the EI, learning outcomes’ passage, enhance students’ academic-efficacy, and to earn students’ trust in teachers and in their learning orientation at HEIs [5, 27, 33]. The intended policy shift may be an initial step by HEIs to encourage their professionals to consider emotion management in pursuit of better learning and academic efficacy. The under-researched topic of EI and learning outcomes in HEIs concerning students, may then receive proper attention. A clear practical hierarchy within HEIs can convince individuals to apply and carry forward the implemented policies to foster the EI, SLOs, and students’ academic-efficacy substantially. Moreover, HEIs should strive to communicate recognition, openness, trust, communication, and knowledge dissemination [89] which in turn create a friendly collegial atmosphere with improved EI, SLOs, and which increase the trust placed in teachers, learning commitments and students’ academic efficacy.

5.3. Implications

This study adds value to the constructivist theory of learning and the ability-based theory of EI in HEIs, targeting their vital essence, i.e., students. Being perhaps the most vital part of higher education institutions, students should be offered opportunities to excel in the challenging scenarios of the modern age [44]. However, there is an evident insufficiency of preparation in the shape of limited opportunities in terms of training and trained EI professionals in Chinese HEIs [5] that prompts a call for expanded training and development of EI for HEI professionals [48] to ultimately strengthen the SLOs [5]. This systematic procedure assists the HEIs’ students to cope with the pressures of demanding situations with resolve, EI, and better learning, and to induce HEIs to create environments conducive to learning [13]. These findings may help policymakers and practitioners at HEIs to rethink and redesign/formulate fresh policies and practices to enable well-trained professionals to enhance HEIs’ responsiveness to current demands.

EI and learning outcomes can play a vital role in the cognitive, affective, and academic learning of students that could facilitate enhanced the performance and competitiveness of HEIs. EI may also help students to assess the scenario wisely, to trust teachers and to understand the institution’s values and norms in order to extend their learning capabilities. In turn, the described process will boost the motivation level and confidence of students to be self-sufficient in relation to curricular and extra-curricular activities. This study can draw the attention of HEI administrators towards students’ emotional upheavals that risk the ruining their motivation, learning, and academic efficacy. HEI administrators may schedule certain training sessions for students to guide them regarding the accurate assessment of emotions in themselves and in others and to equip students with techniques to handle emotions in themselves and in others for purposes of better learning. HEIs should pay attention to students’ EI in order to more reliably assure the success of their learning and to ensure the well-being of the institution.

5.4. Limitations and future research directions

This study has certain limitations that suggest the need for further research and investigation. Small size convenience sample from a limited number of Chinese research universities invite the sample bias and limit the generalisability of results to other research HEIs. Future studies should consider a larger sample size with random sampling to generalise the results and with better rejoinders for research questions of the considered study. A comparative study may also be initiated concerning public and private HEIs across China with the explained variables. Second, the future researchers are encouraged to replicate this study in other developing countries to validate the extracted findings of this study. Third, this study is conducted with a vital focus on students, and researchers are encouraged to conduct this very study with a main focus of academic faculty only or in tandem with administration, thus replacing mediators such as social-emotional learning and teacher burnout, and replacing student academic efficacy with academicians/ administration satisfaction.

(SAV)

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