Exosomes in Atherosclerosis, a Double-Edged Sword: Their Role in Disease Pathogenesis and Their Potential as Novel Therapeutics.

Cardiovascular disease (CAD) due to atherosclerosis is a major cause of death worldwide. The development of atherosclerosis involves intercellular communication facilitated by exosomes secreted from vascular endothelial cells (VECs), vascular smooth muscle cells (VSMCs), immune cells, and platelets. In this review, we summarize the current understanding of exosome biogenesis and uptake, and discuss atherogenic and atheroprotective functions of exosomes secreted from these cell types. In addition, we examine the potential of enhancing the therapeutic and targeting ability of exosomes exhibiting atheroprotective function by drug loading and surface modification with targeting ligands. We conclude with current challenges associated with exosome engineering for therapeutic use.