The trajectory of human wrist movements.

1. To determine the form of human movement trajectories and the factors that determine this form, normal subjects performed wrist flexion movements against various elastic, viscous, and inertial loads. The subjects were instructed with visual and auditory feedback to make a movement of prescribed amplitude in a present period of time, but were free to choose any trajectory that fulfilled these constraints. 2. The trajectories were examined critically to determine if they corresponded to those which would minimize the root mean square (RMS) value of some kinematic variable or of energy consumption. The data agreed better with the trajectory that minimized the RMS value of jerk (the third derivative of length) than that of acceleration. However, systematic deviations from the minimum jerk predictions were consistently observed whenever movements were made against elastic and viscous loads. 3. Improved agreement could generally be obtained by assuming that the velocity profile varied according to a normal (Gaussian) curve. We conclude that minimization of jerk is not a general principle used by the nervous system in organizing voluntary movements, although movements may approach the predicted form, particularly under inertial loading conditions. 4. The EMG of the agonist muscles consisted of relatively simple waveforms containing ramplike increases and approximately exponential decays. The form of the movements could often be predicted quite well by using the EMG as an input to a linear second-order model of the muscle plus load. Rather than rigorously minimizing a kinematic variable or energy consumption, the nervous system may generate simple waveforms and adjust the parameters of these waveforms by trial and error until a trajectory is achieved that meets the requirements for a given load.