Parabens as chemicals of emerging concern in the environment and humans: A review.

Parabens are one of the most widely used preservatives in food, pharmaceuticals and personal care products (PCPs) because of their advantageous properties and low toxicity based on the early assessments. However, recent research indicates that parabens may act as endocrine-disrupting chemicals (EDCs) and thus, are considered as chemicals of emerging concern that have adverse human health effects. To provide the basis for future human health studies, we reviewed relevant literature, published between 2005 and 2020, regarding the levels of parabens in the consumer products (pharmaceuticals, PCPs and food), environmental matrices and humans, including susceptible populations, such as pregnant women and children. The analysis showed that paraben detection rates in consumer products, environmental compartments and human populations are high, while the levels vary greatly by country and paraben type. The concentrations of parabens reported in pregnant women (~20-120 μg/L) were an order of magnitude higher than in the general population. Paraben concentrations in food and pharmaceuticals were at the ng/g level, while the levels in PCPs reached mg/g levels. Environmental concentrations ranged from ng/L-μg/L in surface waters to tens of μg/g in wastewater and indoor dust. The levels of human exposure to parabens appear to be higher in the U.S. and EU countries than in China and India, which may change with the increasing production of parabens in the latter countries. The review provides context for future studies to connect paraben exposure levels with human health effects.