Effects of Tai Chi on Patients with Mild Cognitive Impairment: A Systematic Review and Meta-analysis of Randomized Controlled Trials.

DESIGN: Randomized controlled trials (RCTs) from multiple databases from inception to December 2020 published in English were searched. Two researchers independently performed eligible study screening and data extraction. The methodological quality was assessed with the Jadad score. Meta-analysis of RCTs on TC in the treatment of MCI was performed with RevMan Version 5.4.1.
RESULTS: Seven RCTs with 1265 participants were included. For most RCTs, the overall reporting of methodological quality was high. Results of the meta-analysis indicate that TC improved MCI patients' cognitive function significantly, including overall cognitive function (MD = -2.24, 95% CI -3.51 to -0.97, P = 0.0005), memory and learning (SMD = 0.83, 95% CI 0.22 to 1.45, P = 0.008), visuospatial ability (MD = 3.15, 95% CI 0.74 to 5.56, P = 0.01), executive functions (MD = 0.32, 95% CI 0.03 to 0.61, P = 0.03), and physical activity (MD = 18.78, 95% CI 10.80 to 26.76, P < 0.00001). However, no significant benefit was found for TC on psychological activity (MD = 0.17, 95% CI -0.62 to 0.96, P = 0.36) and biomarker improvement.
CONCLUSION: The meta-analysis confirmed the clinical therapeutic effect of TC for MCI. More rigorous and long-term follow-up RCTs should be conducted in the future.

1. Introduction

Mild cognitive impairment (MCI) refers to a common condition in the elderly with a decline of memory, attention, and cognitive function which is more than expected considering age and education [1]. It is defined as an intermediate stage between normal aging cognitive decline and dementia [2]. A recent report shows that the incidence of MCI is 10%-25% in persons over the age of 65 [3]. With mild cognitive decline, most people suffer from progressive occurrence of neuropsychiatric behaviors [4] and impaired engagement in activities of daily living [5], ultimately leading to a decreasing quality of life (QoL) and higher burdens on family care providers [6] and health professionals [7].

It has been estimated that 37.4% of MCI patients develop dementia within 27.09 ± 15.09 months of follow-up [8]. Therefore, it is critical to identify effective interventions that can delay cognitive decline in this vulnerable population.

To date, there are limited pharmacologic treatments with unclear risks to improve cognitive function or postpone the progression to dementia [9]. Physical activity has become a well-researched and verified behavior intervention for mild cognitive impairment and function and slowing the progression of dementia [10]. Previous reports have suggested that a physically active lifestyle could postpone or even prevent the progression of cognitive decline [11, 12]. Tai Chi (TC), also called Taiji or Taijiquan, is a type of psychophysiological exercise [13] based on traditional Chinese medicine. Relevant studies indicate that TC may be significantly conducive for older adults with MCI. TC is a series of rhythmic and continuous movements alongside cognitive stimulations such as movement recall [14, 15]. Compared with conventional rehabilitation therapy, TC is beneficial not only for neuromuscular activities but also for its associated characteristics, such as breathing control, mind-body relaxation, and mental focus, which may encourage MCI individuals to engage in TC exercises and maintain their physical and psychological well-being. Over the past decade, TC has become more globally widespread as a preferred therapeutic physical activity in patients with MCI [16], cognitive impairment [17], and dementia [18].

The number of clinical studies that explore cognitive effects of TC on patients with MCI has recently increased. A growing number of reviews have investigated both the generalized and specific correlation between TC and cognitive function [19-21], including a narrative review on cognitive function [19], evaluating global cognitive function [20], and a meta-analysis, which exclusively quantitatively analyzed the effect of TC on slowing cognitive progression in elders with MCI [21]. To date, there is no systematic review which has comprehensively analyzed the current literature.

Therefore, we synthesized evidence from RCTs that evaluated the impact of TC on participants with MCI within the areas of comprehensive cognition, physical function, neuropsychiatric aspects, and biomarkers.

2. Methods

According to our previous protocol, this review was performed with PROSPERO registration (http://www.crd.york.ac.uk/PROSPERO; registration number: CRD42019125104) and referenced from Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analysis (PRISMA) guidelines [22].

2.1. Search Strategy

We comprehensively searched EBM Reviews, Embase, Scopus Medline, and Web of Science from database inception up to December 2020, identifying relevant studies published in the English language, using the following terms: “Tai Chi” (“tai-chi” or “t'ai-chi” or “tai-ji” or “taiji” or “taijiquan”) and “cognition” (or “mild cognitive impairment” or “executive function” or “memory and learning” or “cognitive decline” or “early-stage dementia”). Relevant RCTs and reviews for additional studies were searched for further eligible studies. Two researchers independently performed the literature search.

2.2. Eligibility Criteria

Articles were selected for inclusion if they met the following criteria: (1) RCTs of TC intervention; (2) participants: adults age ≥ 55 years, diagnosed with MCI not caused by cerebral space-occupying lesion or craniocerebral trauma according to Petersen et al.'s criteria [3]; (3) interventions of controls which could be no treatment, sham, placebo, health education, or usual care; (4) outcomes which were comprehensive including overall cognitive function, memory and learning, visuospatial ability, executive functions, and physical activity and biomarkers; and (5) clinical trials reported in English. Non-RCTs including reviews, conference abstracts, protocols, cohorts, case series reports, and case-controls were excluded.

2.3. Data Extraction

Retrieved studies were imported into EndNote x9.1. The extracted data included (1) general information (the first authors, year of publication, and country), (2) characteristics of study (diagnostic criteria, sample size, age, intervention, and follow-up), and (3) outcome/measurement and elements for assessing the risk of bias. Data was reviewed by two investigators after reading the full-text studies independently. We extracted the mean (M) and standard deviation (SD) from four aspects of outcome to evaluate the effects of TC on MCI: the primary outcome: cognitive function (global cognitive function, memory and learning, visuospatial ability, and executive function), and the secondary outcome: physical activity, psychological evaluation, and related biomarkers.

2.4. Risk of Bias and Quality Assessment

The Cochrane Risk of Bias Tool for Randomized Controlled Trials [23] was used to assess potential sources of bias among the retrieved RCTs. The evaluation included six items on random sequence generation, allocation concealment, blinding of participants and researchers, blinding of outcome assessment, incomplete outcome data, selective reporting, and other bias. Each item was rated as a “high risk,” “unclear risk,” or “low risk” of bias [24]. Additionally, the methodological quality of each eligible study was assessed with the Jadad et al. scale [23]. The evaluation was determined in randomization, double blinding, and withdrawals and dropouts of participants. Studies with a total quality assessment score of 0–2 were regarded as low quality and 3–5 as high quality. Two authors performed the assessment independently, any discrepancy was resolved through consensus with the third author.

2.5. Data Synthesis and Statistical Analysis

Review Manager (RevMan) Version 5.4.1 (The Cochrane Collaboration, 2020) was used for statistical analysis. The dichotomous variables were expressed as the risk ratios (RRs) with 95% confidence intervals (CIs), and the continuous variables were estimated by mean difference (MD) or standardized mean difference (SMD) with 95% CIs. The statistical heterogeneity was performed by a standard chi-squared (χ2) test and I2 statistic in this analysis. A fixed effects model was used if no significant heterogeneity existed (P > 0.05, I2 < 50%); a random effects model was selected if significant heterogeneity existed (P ≤ 0.05, I2 ≥ 50%). Publication bias was not assessed through funnel plots due to limited sample sizes. We detected the possible reasons for substantial heterogeneity by sensitivity analysis and subgroup analysis.

3. Results

3.1. Identification of Relevant Studies

The database search yielded 548 records. Of these, 4 records were removed as duplicates, and 501 records were excluded following screening of study titles and abstracts. The remaining 43 articles were further screened, and 1 article was removed due to no full-text availability; 35 articles were excluded as they did not meet the research criteria in this review. Outcome data of 2 RCTs [25, 26] were unavailable. Finally, 5 RCTs were included for meta-analysis. The literature selection process is presented in the flow chart (Figure 1).

Figure 1

Flow diagram for study selection process.

3.2. Study Characteristics

There was a total of 7 studies which met inclusion criteria, published between 2012 and 2020. Three studies were conducted in Hongkong, China [25, 27, 28], two in Thailand [15, 16], one in Canada [26], and one in Turkey [29]. A total of 667 (TC group: 312; control group: 355) MCI participants were included in this analysis, of which most were diagnosed by Mini-Mental State Examination (MMSE), Clinical Dementia Rating (CDR), and Montreal Cognitive Assessment (MoCA). Five studies [15, 16, 26–28] compared TC and conventional rehabilitation modalities (including memory training, health education, stretching, and toning exercise). Two studies [25, 29] were comprised of comparisons between TC practitioners and patients without any physical exercises. Several kinds of TC were reported, including 10-form Yang-style Tai Chi [15, 16, 25], Taoist Tai Chi [26], simplified Yang-style Tai Chi [27, 28], and 24-form Tai Chi [29]. The duration of the intervention varied between 2 and 12 months, and duration of treatment session between 20 and 90 minutes. The information of all included RCTs' characteristics is summarized in Tables 1 and 2.

Table 1

Study characteristics of eligible studies.

Studies	Country	Diagnostic criteria	ParticipantsIG/CG (M/F)	Mean age (y)	Intervention	Frequency & duration (Tai Chi)	Follow-up	Adverse event	Quality level
Sungkarat et al. [15]	Thailand	Amnestic MCI, MMSE ≥ 24, and MoCA < 26	33/33	IG: 68.3 (6.7)CG: 67.5 (7.3)	IG: 10-form TCCG: health education	3‐week center‐based + 12‐week home‐based TC (50 minutes per session, 3 times per week)	Not reported	One ill health, one study-unrelated ankle fracture	High (3/5)
Sungkarat et al. [16]	Thailand	Amnestic MCI, MMSE ≥ 24, and MoCA < 26	33/33	IG: 68.3 (6.7)CG: 67.5 (7.3)	IG: 10-form TCCG: health education	Practiced at home for 50 min/session, 3 times/week for 6 months	Not reported	One ill health, one study-unrelated ankle fracture	High (3/5)
Chan et al. [25]	China	MCI, MMSE 13–26, and CPSQI > 5	27/25	IG: 78.4 (7.1)CG: 82.2 (6.7)	IG: 10-form TCCG: usual activities	60-minute TCQ session twice a week for 2 months	6-month	None	High (3/5)
Fogarty et al. [26]	Canada	Amnestic MCI, MMSE	22/18	IG: 71.55 (9.33)CG: 72.61 (5.78)	IG: Taoist TC+MIPCG: memory intervention program (MIP)	2 × 90 min for 22 weeks	1-month follow-up session and a 3-month follow-up session	Not reported	Low (1/5)
Lam et al. [27]	China	CDR 0.5 or amnestic-mild MCI	92/169	IG: 77.2 (6.3)CG: 78.3 (6.6)	IG: 24-form simplified TCCG: stretching and toning exercise	3 × 30 min/week for 12 months	1 year	One died and one fall with bone fracture	Low (0/5)
Xu et al. [28]	China	MCI, HK-MoCA 19–21 (+1 point if education < 6 years)	6/6	IG: 76.43 (4.47)CG: 70.67 (4.23)	IG: 24-form simplified TCCG: health advice	12‐week training + 12‐week practice TC (30 minutes per session, 3 times per week)	6 months	One leg pain	High (3/5)
Birimoglu Okuyan and Deveci[29]	Turkey	MCI, MMSE, and MoCA < 25	20/22	IG: 74.21 (6.93)CG: 74.21 (6.93)	IG: Yang style of TCCG: not subjected to any physical practice	35-40 min/session, twice a week for 12 weeks	Not reported	Not reported	Low (1/5)

Note: MCI = mild cognitive impairment; MMSE = Mini-Mental State Examination; MoCA = Montreal Cognitive Assessment; HK-MoCA = Montreal Cognitive Assessment Hong Kong version; IG = intervention group; CG = control group; TC = Tai Chi.

Table 2

Outcome of eligible studies.

Studies	Cognitive function				Physical activity	Psychological evaluation	Biomarkers
	Global cognitive function	Memory and learning	Visuospatial ability	Executive function
Sungkarat et al. [15]	∗N	Logical Memory-delayed recall	Block Design Test	Digit span, TMT	∗N	∗N	∗N
Sungkarat et al. [16]	∗N	Logical Memory-delayed recall	e Block Design Test	Digit span, TMT	∗N	∗N	BDNF, TNF-α, IL-10
Chan et al. [25]#	MMSE	MIC	∗N	NR	SF-12	∗N	∗N
Fogarty et al. [26]#	TEA, HVLT	RBMT, MAC-SR, digit symbol	∗N	Digit span, TMT	RAPA scale, SF-36	∗N	∗N
Lam et al. [27]	CDR-SOB, ADAS-Cog, MMSE	∗N	Visual span	Digit span	∗N	CSDD, NPI	∗N
Xu et al. [28]	ADAS-Cog, MoCA	Logical Memory delayed recall	∗N	∗N	EQ-VAS, PASE, EQ-5D	GDS-15, GAS-20	∗N
Birimoglu Okuyan and Deveci [29]	(FaB scale) cognitive adaptations	∗N	∗N	∗N	PASE	∗N	∗N

Note: CDR = Clinical Dementia Rating; ADAS-Cog = Alzheimer's Disease Assessment Scale-Cognitive Subscale; MMSE = Mini-Mental State Examination; TEA = Test of Everyday Attention; HVLT = Hopkins Verbal Learning Test; MoCA = Montreal Cognitive Assessment; MIC = Memory Inventory for Chinese; RMBT = Rivermead Behavioral Memory Test; MAC-SR = Memory Assessment Clinics Scale; TMT = Trail-Making Test; sF-12 = short-form 12; RAPA = Rapid Assessment of Physical Activity; SF-36 = RAND 36-Item Short-Form Health Survey-Medical Outcomes Study; PASE = Physical Activity Scale for the Elderly; EQ-VAS = EuroQol-visual analogue scale; EQ-5D = EuroQol-5 Dimension; NPI = Chinese Neuropsychiatric Inventory; CSDD = Cornell Scale for Depression in Dementia; BDNF = brain-derived neurotrophic factor; IL-10 = interleukin-10; TNF-α = tumor necrosis factor-α; ∗N = no report; #no data extracted.

3.3. Methodological Quality and Risk of Bias

Detailed information on the evaluation of the methodological quality and risk of bias of each study was summarized with Revman. Six of the seven RCTs had a lower risk of bias of randomization allocation due to the specified reports of random-sequence generation [15, 16, 25, 27–29]. One [29] used the blocked randomization method, two trials [25, 28] used computer-generated random numbers, and three [15, 16, 27] used the randomization code. The other one had an unclear risk for randomization allocation due to a lack of detailed information [26]. Four RCTs were estimated at low-risk bias of allocation concealment [15, 16, 25, 28], one preferred grouping sequence list with password protection and stored on a computer [25], and three performed opaque sealed allocation [15, 16, 28]. Three trials had unclear allocation concealment without description in enough detail [26, 27, 29]. Five trials were blinded only in outcome assessment, without participants and personnel [15, 16, 25, 27, 28]. One trial had an unclear risk of performance bias as well as detection bias for its unclear blinding [26]. One trial was at unclear risk of performance bias and at low risk of detection bias [29]. Six trials had a low risk of bias with incomplete outcome data [15, 16, 25, 26, 28, 29], and the other one lacked detailing data of dropouts [27]. Three trials had a low risk of bias for their available prespecified outcomes with registration online [16, 25, 28], whereas the other four had a high-risk bias without reported prespecified outcomes [15, 26, 27, 29]. Three trials were estimated at low risk because of their good study design [16, 25, 28]. The other trials were assessed at high [26, 27] or unknown [15, 29] risk of bias in the other resource. For both poor unknown design of poor design allocation and selective reporting, two trials were estimated as high risk of bias in the other resource [26, 27]. The risk of bias of included studies was globally high (Figure 2). Four trials were evaluated as high quality because of their high jaded scores [15, 16, 25, 28], and the other three as poor quality [26, 27, 29]. The overall methodological quality of the RCTs was high (Table 1).

Figure 2

Risk of bias for each included study.

3.4. Effect of Interventions

3.4.1. Global Cognitive Function

The Chinese version of the Alzheimer's Disease Assessment Scale-Cognitive Subscale (ADAS-Cog) is the gold standard widely used in evaluating global cognitive function [30]. Two studies [27, 28] reported the effects of TC on global cognitive function assessed by the ADAS-Cog. The results of the data heterogeneity test I2 = 0% showed improvement in the TC treatment group in MD scores of the global cognitive function, and the difference was statistically significant (MD = −2.24, 95% CI -3.51 to -0.97, P = 0.0005, n = 272, Figure 3).

Figure 3

Forest plot for Tai Chi on global cognitive function.

3.5. Memory and Learning

The Logical Memory delayed recall was used to examine episodic memory [15]. Three studies [15, 16, 28] assessed the effects of TC on memory and learning ability with the Logical Memory delayed recall score. The results revealed a statistically significant mean effect size that favored TC over controls for memory and learning (SMD = 0.83, 95% CI 0.22 to 1.45, P = 0.008, I2 = 57%, n = 126, Figure 4).

Figure 4

Forest plot for Tai Chi on memory and learning.

3.6. Visuospatial Ability

The Block Design Test was used to evaluate visuospatial ability [16]. Two studies [15, 16] reported the effects of TC on visuospatial ability assessed by the Block Design Test. The results revealed a statistically significant mean effect size that favored TC over controls for visuospatial ability (MD = 3.15, 95% CI 0.74 to 5.56, P = 0.01, I2 = 0%, n = 115, Figure 5).

Figure 5

Forest plot for Tai Chi on visuospatial ability.

3.7. Executive Function

The digit span was used to assess executive function [16]. Three studies [15, 16, 27] involving 151 participants in the treatment group and 225 in the control group assessed the digit span. Study results revealed a statistically significant mean effect size that favored TC over controls for executive function (MD = 0.32, 95% CI 0.03 to 0.61, P = 0.03, I2 = 0%, n = 376, Figure 6).

Figure 6

Forest plot for Tai Chi on executive function.

3.8. Physical Activity

Physical Activity Scale for the Elderly (PASE), developed in 1993 to assess the status of physical activity in those with MCI, was used in the present study [31]. Two studies [28, 29] involving 25 participants in the treatment group and 28 in the control group assessed PASE. The results revealed a statistically significant mean effect size that favored TC over controls for physical activity (MD = 18.78, 95% CI 10.80 to 26.76, P < 0.00001, I2 = 0%, n = 53, Figure 7).

Figure 7

Forest plot for Tai Chi on physical activity.

3.9. Psychological Evaluation

CSDD and GDS-15 were clinician-rated instruments assessing a range of biological and psychological symptoms associated with depression [27, 28]. Two studies with 272 participants showed the effects of TC on psychological activity, as measured by CSDD [27] and GDS-15 [28]. The results revealed no statistically significant mean effect size that favored TC over controls for psychological activity (MD = 0.17, 95% CI -0.62 to 0.96, P = 0.68, I2 = 0%, n = 272, Figure 8).

Figure 8

Forest plot for Tai Chi on psychological activity.

3.10. Biomarkers

Among all the included trials, only Sungkarat et al. [16] evaluated biomarkers and reported that the plasma brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) level was significantly increased in 33 older MCI adults, who completed 9 sessions of TC exercise guided by a certified instructor and then performed a consistent home practice with 50-minute video per session, thrice weekly, 72 sessions in 6 months totally (P < 0.05), whereas their interleukin-10 (IL-10) and tumor necrosis factor-α (TNF-α) were similar to those of their 33 counterparts (P > 0.05).

3.11. Adverse Events

Five studies reported AEs [15, 16, 25, 27, 28]. Death [27], leg pain [28], ill health [15, 16], and bone fractures [15, 16, 27] were reported. Except for study-unrelated bone fractures, it is unclear in the other studies whether AEs were related to TC intervention. Another trial reported no adverse effect [25]. Therefore, TC therapy appeared to be a safe treatment for patients with MCI.

4. Discussion

This study is the first review comprehensively evaluating the impact of TC on older adults with MCI. The included relevant studies [15, 16] revealed that during TC training, cognitive activities might contribute to the improvement of cognitive functions. Improving memory and executive functioning after TC exercise has been found to be associated with structural and functional changes in the cortex related to executive control processes, memory, and learning [32, 33]. Moreover, TC influences the cognitive functions of MCI patients in various degrees (global cognitive function (MD = −2.24), memory and learning (SMD = 0.83), visuospatial ability (MD = 3.15), and executive functions (MD = 0.32)). Specifically, the present study demonstrates that TC might help improve cognitive functions, as well as the physical abilities of people suffering from MCI. A positive trend in psychological ability was observed but failed to reach statistical significance.

To date, multifarious biomarkers have been available to support the diagnosis of neurodegenerative diseases in research and clinical settings. Diagnostic criteria for the preclinical asymptomatic phase of AD have been issued by The National Institute on Aging—Alzheimer's Association [34]. Biomarkers such as reduced cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) amyloid-β42 (Aβ42), increased cortical Aβ plaques or CSF tau levels, temporoparietal 18F-fluorodeoxyglucose positron emission tomography-computed tomography (18F-FDG PET-CT) hypometabolism, and medial temporal atrophy structures have been reported to be encompassed criteria contributing to MCI-AD diagnosis. AD biomarkers are essential to the identification of later dementia due to AD, and MCI cases show more than two pathologic biomarkers [35]. FDG-PET metabolism is lower in the MCI individuals which indicates that regional hypometabolism is closely linked with clinical progression of cognitive function, whereas entorhinal cortical thickness is thinner in MCI subjects. Diffusion tensor imaging might exceed CSF markers as a prophet of cognitive decline and cerebral atrophy. Another study indicates that AD biomarkers may aid in rehabilitation of MCI [36]; however, further research is needed to confirm these conclusions. Hitherto, there are very few studies on the mechanism of TC on biomarkers with MCI. In this review, only one included trial [16] mentioned the fluctuating plasma biomarkers of MCI, which suggests that TC is effective in favorably influencing biomarkers correlated with memory and learning. Other studies [32, 33] indicate that TC can enhance resting-state functional connectivity between the hippocampus and medial prefrontal cortex. Enhanced connectivity is significantly beneficial for memory ability and an increase in grey matter volume at the medial temporal lobe, putamen, and insula, which are essential regions for memory and cognition. TC could be an effective method for postponing or even possibly preventing the progression of cognitive decline during aging. Our review indicates that the physiological biomarker plasma BDNF might be responsible for the beneficial effects of TC on cognitive impairment. While this finding should be considered preliminary evidence due to the limited study number, further trials will help to substantiate its role in MCI biomarker improvement.

4.1. Strengths and Limitations

MCI is a transitional state between normal aging cognitive changes and dementia. TC, as an effective and special practice of mind-body exercise, has been described in many MCI case reports, but its exact mechanism is poorly understood. The efficacy of TC in MCI patients was confirmed from a set of high-quality studies in this analysis. Included RCTs were strictly screened, which means more rigorous study design and more reliable results. In addition, the current study analyzed the effects of TC not only on four specific cognitive domains but also on somatic and neuropsychiatric function qualitatively and quantitatively and the changes of MCI-related biomarkers. This should help to further investigate the comprehensive mechanism of TC in the treatment of older patients with MCI. A previously reported meta-analysis focused primarily on measuring the impacts of TC training on cognitive functioning of older adults with or without MCI [21]. In this study, we focused on older adults with MCI, which minimizes the potential bias from other diseases. We paid more attention to comprehensive physical and mental quality, which is conducive to the patients' return to society and family. These strategies support the conclusion of the efficacy of TC on cognition function of patients with MCI.

This review has some potential limitations. First, the number of included RCTs and sample size were limited with 7 RCTs including 1265 participants. Future research warrants more rigorous design of larger samples and multicenter RCTs. Second, the methodological quality assessment was far from being desirable. As an example, three included trials did not report detailed methods of allocation concealment [26, 27, 29]; four trials were at high risk of selective reporting, which could result in selection and reporting bias with confounding of the results. No eligible trial was reported at lower risk of participants and personnel, so performance bias was inevitable. Additionally, studies identified from English databases reporting from non-English-speaking regions included in this review may to some degree cause a biased assessment of this topic. Our results suggest that TC is effective for MCI individuals, with heterogenous improvement across different cognitive domains, with little research regarding the effective mechanism of TC. Therefore, the results need to be interpreted with caution. Lastly, funnel plot analysis for the assessment of publication bias was not conducted due to the insufficient number of trials.

4.2. Practical Implications and Recommendations for Future Studies

This meta-analysis suggests that TC can safely improve cognitive function and physical activities in older adults with MCI when used with appropriate frequency and duration. It provides positive evidence for clinicians that this may be a conducive treatment for this population. TC may improve plasma BDNF, and therapeutic effects could be documented by serial measurements.

Originating from traditional Chinese medicine theories, TC training sessions in the evaluated studies varied regarding frequency, duration, and mode. Hence, in future studies, we recommend standardizing the TC treatment plan, including defined mode, duration, and frequency, to further investigate the comprehensive effectiveness of TC in MCI patients. Meanwhile, to promote population representativeness and avoid bias, recruiting criteria need to be more specific and systematic. Furthermore, the improvement between cognitive domains should be compared to further investigate the pertinency of TC therapy. Thus, more specific functional neuroimaging, vascular biochemical markers, and more sensitive and objective measurement methods are needed in the future.

5. Conclusions

This meta-analysis indicates that TC has positive clinical effects on cognitive function (global cognitive function, memory and learning, executive function, etc.), and physical abilities of older adults with MCI and provides a feasible approach to MCI management. Despite these positive results, it is hasty to arrive at a definite conclusion regarding the positive effect of TC for the treatment in older adults with MCI due to the general methodological quality and the heterogeneity of the included RCTs in this study. To provide stronger evidence, more multicenter, double-blinded, and placebo-controlled RCTs are required in the future.