Spatio-temporal variations in fine particulate matter and evaluation of associated health risk over Pakistan.

Human health and the environment are adversely affected by fine particulate matter. By utilizing standard deviation ellipse and trend analyses, we studied the spatial patterns and temporal trends of PM2.5 over Pakistan from 1998 to 2016. The outcomes of these analyses indicated that PM2.5 concentrations were considerably amplified in Pakistan, particularly in the provinces of Punjab and Sindh. The areal extent of PM2.5 concentrations below 15 μg/m3 declined constantly, and the area with PM2.5 concentrations above 35 μg/m3 increased significantly. The highly affected cities were Lahore, Faisalabad, Multan, Southern Gujranwala, Dera Ghazi Khan, Bahawalpur, Sukkur, and Larkana. Overall, the northwest-southeast axis experienced more rapid variations in the spatial pattern of PM2.5 than the northeast-southwest axis; similarly, the east-north axis also experienced faster changes in the spatial distribution of this crucial pollutant than the west-south axis. To support nationwide air pollution control, a 2-tier level was recommended for allocated regions in Pakistan depending on their PM2.5 concentrations. From 1998 to 2016, health risks expanded and increased in Pakistan, particularly in Lahore, Karachi, Multan, Gujranwala, Faisalabad, and Hyderabad; these are Pakistan's most populated cities. The outcomes of this study suggest that human health is continuously affected by PM2.5 in Pakistan and that a plan of action to combat air pollution is immediately needed. This article is protected by copyright. All rights reserved. This article is protected by copyright. All rights reserved.