Apoptotic endocrinal toxic effects of perchlorate in human placental cells.

BACKGROUND: Perchlorate is a strong oxidizing agent and has many adverse health effects. This study investigated the potential oxidative, apoptotic, and endocrinal toxic effects of perchlorate in human placenta-derived mesenchymal stem cells (HP-MSCs).
METHODS: HP-MSCs were treated with two doses of perchlorate (5 and 15 μg/L) for three days. The perchlorate's effects were detected by histopathological examination, aromatase/CYP19 A1 activity, reactive oxygen species production (ROS), and Caspase-3 expression.
RESULTS: The highest perchlorate concentration (15 μg/L) caused significant placental histopathological changes. The placental cell viability was significantly affected by a significant increase in ROS generation; caspase-3 expression, and a significant reduction of CYP 19 activity. Despite the slight induction effect of the lowest perchlorate concentration (5 μg/L) on caspase 3 expression, CYP 19 activity, and ROS generation, it did not affect placental cellular viability.
CONCLUSION: This study suggested that perchlorate could modulate aromatase activity and placental cytotoxicity. The continuous monitoring of the actual perchlorate exposure is needed and could be cost-effective.

Introduction

Perchlorate is a strong oxidizing agent found in soil, vegetation, groundwater, and surface water [1]. Its drinking water contamination can result from manufacturing’s waste release, fertilizer usage, and atmospheric deposition [2].

Perchlorate is rapidly absorbed by the digestive system into the bloodstream and is urinary excreted in an unchanged form within 12 h. Moreover, it has been found in breast milk, infants’ urine, maternal, and cord blood samples [3].

The universal presence of perchlorate in drinking water has raised public attention toward its health adverse and toxicological effects [4].

The upper contaminant perchlorate level of 3.6 up to 4 μg/L portable water has been recommended in the United States [5,6]. England and the Republic of Korea determines the perchlorate level around 2.073 μg/L to be the upper permissible concentration [7,8].

Generally, human exposure to the strong oxidizing perchlorate anion has many adverse health effects [9]. Many human [[9], [10], [11], [12]] and animal studies [[13], [14], [15]] have reported the perchlorate’s toxic and carcinogenic effects in thyroid cells.

Perchlorate has been reported to decrease thyroid iodide uptake [16] through competitively inhibition of the sodium iodide symporter (NIS) molecule; an iodide pump on the surface of the thyroid follicle and to decrease thyroid hormone synthesis [14]. These effects have a particular concern for women of childbearing age [7].

Perchlorate exposure at high concentrations has reproductive toxicity also, it triggers a decrease in placental thyroid hormones’ transfer to the fetus [14]. Moreover, it causes DNA damage in testicular tissues and reduces testicular spermatogenesis. Perchlorate can induce oxidative stress that results in membrane lipid peroxidation and can initiate apoptosis by increasing the expression of c-fos and fas proteins [8].

During pregnancy, a well-functioning placenta is needed to ensure appropriate fetal development and growth. Placental cytochrome P450 aromatase (CYP19 A1) is needed as a rate-limiting enzyme in estrogen and androgen biosynthesis from cholesterol precursors [17].

Additionally, cytokeratin 18 protein is cleaved by caspase enzymes and produces neo-peptide that is used as an apoptotic marker [18]. Furthermore, reactive oxygen species (ROS) are involved in the placental trophoblastic invasion and vascular development [19]. Controlling the caspase enzyme activity and ROS production is essential for the appropriate regulation of placental cellular survival [8].

In the literature, perchlorate has been proven to have toxic reproductive effects [8]. However, its placental toxicological effects are poorly described. Thus, this study aimed to evaluate perchlorate’s placental cytotoxicity and its ability to affect CYP19 A1 activity, reactive oxygen species production, and Caspase-3 expression.

Material and methods

Human placenta-derived mesenchymal stem cells (HP-MSCs) isolation and characterization

After obtaining the ethical approval from forensic medicine and clinical toxicology department, Cairo University, the informed consents were obtained from healthy mother donors.

were isolated and characterized as described in Nasser et al. [20]. After placenta tissue’ collection, the internal chorion, and decidua membranes were detached. The separated tissue was enzymatically digested by shaking with a mixture of trypsin, dispase, and collagenase IV at 37 °C for 60 min. HP-MSCs were collected by strainer and were cultured in T75 flasks in mesenchymal stem cells basal medium (MSCBM, Lonza). It was supplemented with 10 % fetal bovine serum and 25 ng/mL fibroblast growth factor 4 (R&D System, Minneapolis, MN) at 37 °C in an atmosphere of 5% CO2 and 3% O2.

The propagation of cells was performed after detaching the adherent monolayer by adding trypsin 5% at 37 °C for 15 min. The first patch was propagated after three days, and the subsequent patches were propagated every two days for six passages.

Cellular phenotype identification was made by fluorescence-activated cell sorting analysis. The identity of HP-MSC was evaluated by the presence of CD29 and CD90 with the absence of CD45 and CD34 expressions.

Perchlorate exposure and cell culture groups

HP-MSCs were treated with Perchloric acid ACS reagent, 70 % HClO.2H2O (Sigma-Aldrich Chemical Co., St. Louis, Mo, U.S.A., Cat number: 244252) in a dose and time-dependent manner as follow:

Group 1 HP-MSCs was untreated cells, Group 2 HP-MSCs was treated with perchlorate at dose 5 μg/L [4,6], while Group 3 HP-MSCs was treated with perchlorate at dose 15 μg/L [2] (as an example of high perchlorate level in water). All groups were treated and cultured for 3 days; day1(D1), day2 (D2), and day3 (D3).

Cell viability assessment by MTT

Colorimetric assay of cellular metabolic activity was done using ready-use MTT Reagent (Biospes, China, Cat n#BAR1005-1). The assessment of cell metabolic proliferation activity to MTT reagent was detected by using oxidoreductase enzymes that reduce the tetrazolium dye. Color absorbance was read at range 490–630 nm using an Enzyme-Linked Immuno-Sorbent Assay plate reader (Stat Fax 2200, Awareness Technologies, Florida, USA). The absorbance is positively correlated with the number of living cells in culture.

Reactive oxygen species (ROS) assay

Reactive oxygen species (ROS) were measured (ng/mL) in each placental microsomes conditioned media by ELISA technique using Human ROS ELISA Kit (Catalog No: MBS2515781, MyBiosource, Inc, Southern California, San Diego, USA).

ROS assay kit detects acidic ribonuclease activity, RNASET2, due to increased reactive oxygen species. It uses antibodies specific to Human RNASET2, Avidin-Horseradish Peroxidase conjugate, and substrate. By adding samples, wells that contained Human RNASET2 appeared blue. The absorbance was spectrophotometrically read at 450 nm +/- 2 nm. The absorbance value is positively correlated with Human RNASET2 and ROS concentrations.

Placental microsomal CYP19A activity assay

CYP19A activity (μU/mg) was assessed fluorometrically in each placental microsomes conditioned media using aromatase (CYP19A) activity assay Kit (Catalog # K983-100, BioVision, USA). In this kit, the added fluorogenic substrate was converted into a highly fluorescent metabolite that was detected at 488−527 nm.

The CYP19A activity was measured in two parallel reactions, using a highly selective aromatase inhibitor, Letrozole, and positive control. The first reaction in the presence of the Letrozole and the other in the absence of it. The final aromatase activity is calculated and subtracting any residual activity detected with the inhibitor present in the before-mentioned parallel reactions.

Cleaved caspase-3 assessment by western blot

Cells were washed, lysed, and proteins were isolated. They were separated by sodium dodecyl sulfate polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis then transferred to an Immobilon membrane (Millipore) [21].

After incubation in 5% non-fat dry milk, Tris-HCL, and 0.1 % Tween 20 for 1 -h, the antigen affinity-purified polyclonal sheep IgG anti-human active cleaved caspase-3 antibody was added to one of the membranes containing specimen samples and incubated at 4 °C overnight. Appropriate secondary antibodies were incubated for 2 h at room temperature. The density-metric analysis of the immunoblots was performed by total protein normalization image analysis software on the ChemiDoc MP imaging system (version 3) produced by Bio-Rad (Hercules, CA).

Cleaved caspase-3 protein expression detection by immunocytochemistry

HP-MSCs were seeded on a 96 well plate with glass bottom, fixed in 100 % methanol for 10 min, permealized with 0.5 % Triton X-100 in PBS for 10 min, incubated with cleaved caspase-3 primary antibody for twenty-four hours (1:500, Abcam, Cambridge, UK), then washed, and the secondary antibody anti-rabbit IgG (1:1000) was added for 1 h. The presence of cleaved caspase-3 immune-positive HP-MSCs was identified and quantified in five images for each group using Image-Pro Plus program.

Statistical methods

The data were coded and analyzed using the Statistical Package for Social Sciences (SPSS) version 21. The perchlorate effect on each tested parameter was measured fourteen times and the average was used. The data were summarized using mean and standard deviation. Comparisons between values measured at different duration among the three groups were conducted by Repeated Measures ANOVA and Posthoc comparisons using Tukey’s HSD was used. P-values less than 0.05 were considered statistically significant.

Results

Perchlorate showed a significant cytotoxic effect in HP-MSCs through exposure period Tables 1,2,3. Group 3 (treated with 15 μg/L perchlorate) showed a more than 70 % decline in cell viability in comparison to other groups, especially with longer exposure duration Table 3.

Table 1

Pairwise comparison between expression values of Caspase-3, Cytochrome 19, reactive oxygen species, and cell viability of un-treated human placenta derived mesenchymal stem cells different durations.

	Duration
Parameter Mean ± SD	1 day	2 days	3 days
Cleaved caspase-3/ β-actin	.18 ± .08	.14 ± .04	.14 ± .05
	$(-.6/-.4)	#(-.3/-.1)	#(-.4/-.06)
		$(-1/-.9)	$(-1.8/-1.5)
CYT19 (μU/mg)	.25 ± .1	.3 ± .1	.4 ± .2
	#(-.3/-.1)	#(-.2/-.09)	#(-.65/-.24)
	$(.05/.2)
ROS (ng/mL)	.4 ± .3	.5 ± .2	.5 ± .3
	#(-.8/-.1)	#(-1/-.3)	#(-1/-.3)
	$(-1/-.3)	$(-1/-.59)	$(-1.9/-1.1)
Cell viability (absorbance at 450)	.5 ± .2	.7 ± .3	.9 ± .37
	$(-.3/-.03)	#(-1/-.5)	#(-1.4/-.8)
		$(.16/.8)	$(.4/1)
% of Caspase-3 immuno-reactive cells	3.3 ± 1.5 (+)	4 ± 1 (+)	3.7 ± 1.5 (+)
	$(-9.4/-2)	$(-11.4/-4.5)	$(-19.7/-13)

SD: standard deviation; CI: Confidence Interval (lower/upper); CYT19: placental microsomal cytochrome 19 A; ROS: reactive oxygen species; * significant p value <0.05 between groups; #: statistically significant compared to corresponding value in group-2 (P < 0.05); $: statistically significant compared to corresponding value in group-3 (P < 0.05). Immunocytochemical score: 1,(+).

Table 3

Pairwise comparison between expression values of Caspase-3, Cytochrome 19, reactive oxygen species, and cell viability of human placenta derived mesenchymal stem cells treated with 15 μg/L perchlorate for different durations.

	Duration
Parameter Mean ± SD (CI)	1 day	2 days	3 days
Cleaved caspase-3/ β-actin	.7 ± .2$#	1.2 ± .2$#	2 ± .4$#
	$(-.6/-.4)	$(-1/-.9)	$(-1.8/-1.5)
	#(-.5/-.3)	#(-.9/-.7)	#(-1.6/-1.3)
CYT19 (μU/mg)	.4 ± .16$	.3 ± .07#	.2 ± .04#
	$(.05/.2)	#(.1/.29)	#(.4/.8)
ROS (ng/mL)	1.1 ± .5$	1.5 ± .6$	2 ± .7$#
	$(-1/-.3)	$(-1/-.59)	$(-1.9/-1.1)
			#(-1.1/-.3)
Cell viability (absorbance at 450)	.39 ± .1#	.22 ± .1$#	.12 ± .04$#
	#(.2/.4)	$(.16/.8)	$(.4/1)
		#(1/1.7)	#(1.5/2)
% of Caspase-3 immuno-reactive cells	9 ± 2 (++)	12 ± 2 (++)	20 ± 2 (+++)
	$(2/9)	$(4.5/11.4)	$(13/19.7)
	#(.3/7.7)	#(4.5/11.4)	#(11.3/18)

SD: standard deviation; CI: Confidence Interval (lower/upper); CYT19: placental microsomal cytochrome 19 A; ROS: reactive oxygen species; * significant p value <0.05 between groups; $: statistically significant compared to corresponding value in group-1 (P < 0.05); #: statistically significant compared to corresponding value in group-2 (P < 0.05). Immunocytochemical score: 2, (++); 3,(+++).

Perchlorate induced ROS generation in HP-MSCs. Its significant effect on ROS generation was described in all treated groups. Perchlorate led to a 1.4 up to a 3-fold increase of ROS generation during the period of exposure Tables 2,3.

Table 2

Pairwise comparison between expression values of Caspase-3, Cytochrome 19, reactive oxygen species, and cell viability of human placenta derived mesenchymal stem cells treated with 5 μg/L perchlorate for different durations.

	Duration
Parameter Mean ± SD (CI)	1 day	2 days	3 days
Cleaved caspase-3/ β-actin	.23 ± .1	.36 ± .1$	.4 ± .1$
	#(-.5/-.3)	$(-.3/-.1)	$(-.4/-.06)
		#(-.9/-.7)	#(-1.6/-1.3)
CYT19 (μU/mg)	.46 ± .1$	.5 ± .13$	.8 ± .4$
	$(-.3/-.1)	$(-.2/-.09)	$(-.65/-.24)
		#(.1/.29)	#(.4/.8)
ROS (ng/mL)	.96 ± .6$	1.2 ± .67$	1.3 ± .4$
	$(-.8/-.1)	$(-1/-.3)	$(-1/-.3)
			#(-1.1/-.3)
Cell viability (absorbance at 450)	.69 ± .22$	1.6 ± .7$	2.0 ± .63$
	$(-.3/-.03)	$(-1/-.5)	$(-1.4/-.8)
	#(.2−.4)	#(1/1.7)	#(1.5/2)
% of Caspase-3 immuno-reactive cells	5 ± 2 (+)	4 ± 2 (+)	5.3 ± 1.5 (+)
	#(-7.7/-.3)	#(-11.4/-4.5)	#(-18/-11.3)

SD: standard deviation; CI: Confidence Interval (lower/upper); CYT19: placental microsomal cytochrome 19 A; ROS: reactive oxygen species; * significant p value <0.05 between groups; $: statistically significant compared to corresponding value in group-1 (P < 0.05); #: statistically significant compared to corresponding value in group-3 (P < 0.05). Immunocytochemical score:1,(+).

HP-MSCs treated with 15 μg/L perchlorate showed reduced CYP 19 activity. The significant inhibitory effect of perchlorate was noticed with increasing exposure duration; at two and three days Tables 2,3.

The expression levels of cleaved caspase-3 were significantly increased (P-value<0.05) in all treated groups Tables 2,3. The highest value was noticed at day three within group 3 (2 ± .4) Table 3 Fig. 1.

Fig. 1

Immunoblotting of the cleaved caspase-3 (A) and β-actin (B) proteins from human placental cells among group 1 (untreated), group 2 (treated with 5 μg/L perchlorate), and group-3 (treated with 15 μg/L perchlorate) for three different durations.

The significant effect of the exposure duration and the measured parameters were illustrated in Fig. 2. Furthermore, the repeated analysis of variances (ANOVA) indicated significant evidence that exposure duration affected human placenta cells’ viability, ROS generation, CYP 19 activity, and caspase-3 expression.

Fig. 2

Expression values of cell viability (A), reactive oxygen species (B), Cytochrome 19 (C) Caspase-3 (D) in human placenta derived mesenchymal stem cells among group 1 (untreated), group 2 (treated with 5 μg/L perchlorate), and group-3 (treated with 15 μg/L perchlorate) for three different durations.

In human placenta cells’ viability Fig. 2(A), ANOVA showed that F-value 21.75, p-value 0.000 in Group 2 and F 31.6, p 0.001 in Group 3. A statistically significant difference was found within Group 2 and 3 in the following exposure durations; D1/D2; D1/D3, D2/D3 (P-value <0.05)

In ROS generation Fig. 2(B), ANOVA showed that F-value 7.7, p-value. 001in Group3. A statistically significant difference was found within Group3 in the following exposure durations; D1/D3, D2/D3.

In CYP 19 activity Fig. 2(C), ANOVA showed that F-value 8.67, p-value 0.001 in Group 2 and F-value 14.5, p-value .001 in Group 3. A statistically significant difference was found within Group 2 and 3 in the following exposure durations; D1/D3, D2/D3. However, a statistically significant difference between D1 and D2 was detected only within Group 3.

In caspase-3 expression Fig. 2(D), ANOVA showed that F-value 8.6, p-value 0.001in Group2 and F-value 76.8, p-value .001 in Group3. A statistical significant difference was found within Group 2 and 3 in the following exposure durations; D1/D2, and D1/D3. However, a statistically significant difference between D2 and D3 was detected only within Group 3.

Administration of low perchlorate concentration for three days significantly increased human cells’ viability Fig. 2(A) as its cytotoxicity did not affect cellular growth Fig. 3. However, the highest concentration significantly decreased cells’ viability Fig. 2(A) and had more cytotoxic effects, including more apoptotic bodies with loss of the cellular boundaries Fig. 4. Moreover, Caspase-3 immunoreactivity was significantly predominantly seen in Group 3, HP-MSCs treated with 15 μg/L Table 3, Fig. 5.

Fig. 3

Photomicrographs of normal human placenta- derived mesenchymal stem cells (100x) at different durations (A). Photomicrographs of human placenta- derived mesenchymal stem cells (50x) treated with 5 μg/L (group-2) for different durations; 1, 2, 3 days (B).

Fig. 4

Photomicrographs of normal human placenta- derived mesenchymal stem cells (100x) at different durations (A). Photomicrographs of human placenta- derived mesenchymal stem cells (50x) treated with 15 μg/L perchlorate (group-3) for different durations; 1, 2, 3 days. Black arrows showed apoptotic bodies with loss of cell boundaries (B).

Fig. 5

Immunostaining of cleaved caspase-3 in normal human placenta- derived mesenchymal stem cells (100x) at different durations (A, D, G), human placenta- derived mesenchymal stem cells (100x) treated with 5 μg/L perchlorate (group-2) for different durations; 1, 2, 3 days (B, E, H), and human placenta- derived mesenchymal stem cells (100x) treated with 15 μg/L perchlorate (group-3) for different durations; 1, 2, 3 days (C, F, I).

Discussion

This study highlighted the placental cytotoxicity of perchlorate at two different concentrations in human placenta-derived mesenchymal stem cells.

Perchlorate (CLO4−) can be used in in-vitro studies due to many properties including kinetic stability, high solubility, and non-volatile oxidizing compound [22]. Therefore, its toxicological effects on human placenta cells were directly related to its concentration.

The highest perchlorate concentration (15 μg/L) significantly induced ROS generation, increased caspase-3 expression, and reduced CYP 19 activity therefore, placental cell viability was significantly affected.

Besides, the placental cells that exposed to the lowest perchlorate concentration (5 μg/L) were slightly affected comparable to the un-exposed cells due to the availability of this compound in the culture medium, and its slight inducing effect on caspase 3 expression, CYP 19 activity and ROS generation.

Consequently, the higher concentration of perchlorate in the culture media, the higher the cytotoxic effect with greater ability to inhibit CYP19 activity was found in human placenta cells [23].

The perchlorate cytotoxic effect could be related to its inhibitory effect on cellular proliferation and its apoptotic effect [24]. In addition, perchlorate could alter many genes responsible for placental cell migration, adhesion, and differentiation [25].

CYP19 A1 is one of the multiple enzymes involved in placental steroid biosynthesis and its endocrine function. Its alteration had been detected in pre-eclamptic and intrauterine growth retardation placentas [26,27].

We investigated the placental activity of CYP19A1. CYP19A1 activity was influenced by 5 μg/L perchlorate, while its activity was inhibited with the highest perchlorate concentration. This might represent the inhibitory effect of ROS on CYP19A1 activity in placenta cells [26,27]. Thereby, the reduction of CYP 19 activity can have harmful consequences during pregnancy.

In addition to the endocrine function of the placenta, the healthy placental cells are needed for a healthy pregnancy and fetal growth [27].

Oxidative stress, which results from significant ROS generation in the placenta of pregnant women, has been associated with different pathologies and early pregnancy failure [26].

The accumulation of ROS and the increasing caspase 3 activity could raise the ability of perchlorate to induce apoptotic cascade in placental cells, especially with higher concentrations and longer exposure durations [28].

Elevated placental ROS deactivates placental macromolecules, disturbs its cellular metabolism, and alters the gene expression leading to endothelial dysfunction and excessive trophoblast apoptosis genes [25,29]. Moreover, Zhao et al. [30] stated that perchlorate could induce mitochondrial oxidative stress and lipid peroxidation with subsequent mitochondrial damage.

In comparison to our result, Liu et al. [24] observed a non-significant effect of perchlorate-induced oxidative stress on thyroid cellular damage.

Apoptosis is initiated via the extrinsic or intrinsic pathway. The two pathways end in one pathway, including the cleavage and activation of caspase-3, 6, and 7 initiating cell destruction [31].

Exaggerated apoptosis has been reported not only in the pregnancy complication and hydatidiform mole, but also in placentas with pre-eclampsia and intrauterine growth restriction [31].

The health effects of perchlorate in human have been examined. Consequently, the US Environmental Protection Agency (US EPA), one of the major regulatory agencies, had set a maximum contaminant level of 15 μg/L as Health Reference Level (HRL). In 2009, US EPA revisited its earlier decision and decided to set a new national HRL taking into consideration the sensitive subgroups e.g. pregnant and lactating women [2]. US EPA has not yet established regulatory standards for perchlorate in drinking water, but some states developed their standards e.g. California has set a maximum contaminant level of 6 as HRL [4].

It is important to stress that the detected perchlorate’s toxic effects at a concentration of 5 μg/L, HRL in California [4], had lesser effects that did not alter placental cell viability.

Conclusion and recommendation

Although the tested variables’ trend shows that the perchlorate of 15 μg/L has toxic effects that affect placental cellular viability in this preliminary study. More studies on pregnant women are needed to get more significant indicators. Also, more researches using more variable concentrations to demonstrate a dose-dependence of perchlorate-induced toxicity in human placental cells. In addition, continuous monitoring and estimation of human exposure to perchlorate are also needed.

Author statement

Mona M. Ali: Contributed to conception or design, contributed to acquisition, analysis, or interpretation of data, drafted the manuscript, gave final approval.

Sarah A. Khater: Contributed to conception or design, contributed to acquisition, analysis, or interpretation of data, drafted the manuscript, gave final approval

Amel Ahmed Fayed: Contributed to acquisition, analysis, or interpretation of data, gave final approval

Dina Sabry: Contributed to acquisition, analysis, or interpretation of data, gave final approval

Samah F. Ibrahim: Contributed to conception or design, contributed to acquisition, analysis, or interpretation of data, drafted the manuscript, critically revised the manuscript for important intellectual content.

Funding information

This research was funded by the Deanship of Scientific Research at Princess Nourah bint Abdulrahman University through the Fast-track Research Funding Program.

Declaration of Competing Interest

The authors report no declarations of interest.