Ethnobotany and diversity of medicinal plants used by the Buyi in eastern Yunnan, China.

The Buyi are a socio-linguistic group in Yunnan Province of southwest China that have a long history of using medicinal plants as part of their indigenous medical system. Given the limited written documentation of the Buyi indigenous medical system, the objective of this paper is to document the medicinal plants of the Buyi and associated traditional knowledge and transmission. Field research was conducted in four villages in Lubuge Township of Luoping County in Yunnan Province using ethnobotanical methodologies including participatory observation, semi-structured interviews, key informant interviews, and focus group discussions to elicit information on medicinal plants. In total, 120 informants (including 15 key informants who are healers) were interviewed. This study found that a total of 121 medicinal plant species belonging to 64 families are used by the Buyi including by local healers to treat different diseases. Among the medicinal plants recorded in this study, 56 species (46%) have not previously been documented in the scientific literature as having medicinal value, highlighting the pressing need for ethnobotanical documentation in indigenous communities. The most frequently used medicinal part was the leaf (24.9% of documented plants), and the most common preparation method was decoction (62.8% of medicinal). Medicinal plants were mainly used to treat rheumatism (12.4% of plants), trauma and injuries (9.6%). The documented plants are also used for other non-medicinal purposes including food, fodder, fencing, and ornamental. In addition, 35 of the medicinal plants are considered poisonous and are used by local Buyi healers for medicine. The traditional Buyi beliefs and practices associated with the documented medicinal plants likely contributes to their conservation in the environments and around Buyi communities. This study further highlights that ethnomedicinal knowledge of the Buyi is at risk of disappearing due to increased introduction and use of modern medicine in Buyi communities, livelihood changes, rapid modernization, and urbanization. Research, policy, and community programs are urgently needed to conserve the biocultural diversity associated with the Buyi medical system including ethnobotanical knowledge towards supporting both environmental and human wellbeing.

Introduction

Plant resources are integral to human societies and have been used by different cultural groups for thousands of years for supporting wellbeing. Numerous cultural groups around the world continue to rely on plants as their primary means of healing and have developed their own medical systems based on unique theories, beliefs, and experiences (WHO, 2012). Indigenous and traditional medical systems are particularly widespread in communities throughout Asia. For example, indigenous and traditional medical systems account for a notable proportion of all healthcare provided in China (Zhu, 2016). Different socio-linguistic groups in China have their own indigenous and traditional medical systems and medicinal plant uses which vary on the basis of geography and associated ecology (Liu et al., 2016).

The Buyi are indigenous inhabitants of southwestern China that have long relied on medicinal plants for disease prevention and treatment as well as overall wellbeing. The Buyi are one of the 55 recognized minority socio-linguistic groups in China and are the 11th most populous with a population of approximately 2.87 million (Population Census Office of Ministry of Population of China, 2010). The ancestors of the Buyi traditionally lived around the regions of the Nanpan, Beipan, and Hongshui Rivers. The association of the Buyi with rivers and mountain regions has shaped their current living habits. For instance, the typical Buyi village is usually located in a mountainous area with a river nearby (Yu and Guo, 2018). The typical architectural style of the Buyi, called “gan lan” (stilt style), is designed with double floors with only the top floor for living for the purpose of avoiding moisture from nearby rivers, dangerous animals, and poisonous insects. The Buyi have had to overcome many natural challenges in order to survive in their surroundings of high-altitude mountains and humid river valleys. Over time, the Buyi have accumulated a large amount of indigenous knowledge of medicinal plants in their surroundings, which has helped to ensure their survival and the thriving of their communities. The Buyi ethnomedicinal system is comprised of unique theories and diagnostic methods, which are distinct from traditional Chinese medicine, Western medicine, and other ethnomedicinal systems (Liu and Xue, 2012).

The Buyi speak their own indigenous language, which belongs to the branch of Zhuang language family (Zhou, 2009). Their current written language was created in the 1950s as a combination of Latin and Pinyin systems (Zhou, 2009). The Buyi originated from one of the branches of the “bai yue” group, referred to as “luo yue” in China. The earliest literature regarding the Buyi dates back to the Han Dynasty (206BC-220AD). Since then, their name has been changed several times across different dynasties, including “pu yue”, “liao”, and “fan man”. The word “bu yi” was recorded in Chinese phonetically with “Bu” meaning ‘people’ or ‘linguistic group’. The Buyi people address themselves as “Yi” in a manner of respect (Editorial Committee of the Brief History of the Buyi People, 2008). The Buyi are mainly distributed in southwest China, including in Guizhou, Yunnan, and Sichuan provinces. More than 98% of the total population of Buyi people reside in Qiannan and Qianxinan prefectures of Guizhou Province. The remaining Buyi population is scattered in Luoping and Maguan counties of Yunnan, and in Ningnan County of Sichuan (Wang and Shang, 2009).

Several records about the medicinal plants used by the Buyi people have been compiled including the Checklist of Medicinal Herbs of Guizhou (Guizhou Institute of Traditional Chinese Medicine, 1988), Flora Reipublicae Popularis Sinicae (Editorial Committee of Flora Reipublicae Popularis Sinicae, 2004), Buyi Medicine, and the Utilization of Buyi Medicinal Herbs of the Buyi People Inhabited Letters (Jia and Li, 2005). Furthermore, research has been carried out in several Buyi communities in Guizhou Province on the use of medicinal resources and documented 252 plants, 26 animals, and 11 minerals used for medicinal purposes (Pan et al., 2003). However, there remains limited documentation of the ethnobotany of Buyi medicinal plants in Yunnan and Sichuan Provinces. As Buyi healers have traditionally collected medicinal plants from their surrounding fields, it is hypothesized that the medicinal plants and composition of medicinal plant prescriptions used by the Buyi in Yunnan and Sichuan Provinces differ significantly from those used in Guizhou Province due to variation in geography and certain cultural attributes.

The Buyi population in Luoping County of Yunnan Province is mainly concentrated in the Lubuge Buyi and Miao Autonomous Townships in a remote mountainous area with limited transportation, a distinct language, and extreme topographic variation. Consequently, the vegetation in and around Buyi communities in Yunnan is well preserved with high species diversity and a well forest coverage. The indigenous cultural practices of the Buyi are also well preserved in the remote communities in Luoping County.

Multicultural activities with other groups living around Buyi communities including the Miao, Yi, Bai, Hui, and Zhuang (Ju et al., 2013) are hypothesized to results in unique medical theories and medicinal plant uses by the Buyi communities living in Yunnan Province compared to those living in different geographic areas. Our previous ethnobotany studies indicate that the medicinal systems of the various indigenous people of Yunnan are vanishing due to habitat loss, influence from mainstream Chinese culture, development, and unsustainable resource utilization (Muthu et al., 2006; Li et al., 2006). Ethnobotanical research is urgently needed to investigate and document the medicinal system of Buyi communities in Yunnan Province in order to inform conservation efforts of biocultural diversity towards supporting both environmental and human wellbeing.

Material and methods

Buyi traditional culture

In general, one should be highly respected by the local people before becoming a healer in a Buyi community. For many local Buyi healers, them do not ask for much money or goods from patients when they diagnose their patients' diseases. The local Buyi healers do not buy medicinal materials from markets or pharmacy stores. Instead, they will go to the natural habitats to collect any medicinal materials they require for their practice. They prescribe medicinal recipes to patients as a gift, and they continue taking care of patients until they recover. If the patients’ health conditions continue getting worse, the healers will change their medicinal recipes (Cui and Tang, 2007).

The Buyi local healers believe in the “Jing, Qi and Xue”, three elements in Buyi ethnomedicine, which are a basic conceptual framework of the human body. When malfunction happens in these three elements, a patient's body will get an illness. Additionally, they also believe that a human's life is determined by the surrounding environmental conditions. If the environment has been damaged, one's life will also been negatively impacted. The above-mentioned theories have been used as basic framework for treatment disease and medicinal prescribing.

During the long process of human–nature interactions, the Buyi people not only accumulated abundant traditional knowledge for the utilization and protection of the natural environment and its resources, but also they have established an environmentally friendly network, which is closely connected with animals and plants, geographic conditions, and local climates. These traditional cultural beliefs are rooted in their religious beliefs, routine practices, ritual rules, and social regulations.

Simultaneously, the local ecological environment has also been influenced directly or indirectly by the Buyi people's traditional lifestyle, religious belief, and taboo. Here are two aspects:

The richness and diversity of plants and animals might be broadly utilized in the traditional manufacturing process, such as textile, batik, brocade, embroidery, bamboo weaving, and carving.

Buyi traditional customs and taboos call for more people to understand local biological resources and protect natural resources, so as to ultimately protect the composition, structure, and function of the ecosystem, stabilize the energy flow and material circulation, and improve the overall ecological function in terms of religious belief and worship.

The living condition of Buyi village is characterized by the surrounded mountains and rivers. Also, the Buyi village is also surrounded by towering ancient trees. Where there is a sacred tree, there is a mountain god. The Buyi people believe that the sacred tree cannot be cut down or destroyed at any time, otherwise disaster will occur. Therefore, the tree will survive and thrive for a long time.

Study area

Luoping County is located in Qujing Prefecture of Eastern Yunnan province in China at 103°57′-104°43′ E and 24°31′-25°25′ N, at the junction of Guizhou, Guangxi, and Yunnan provinces (Fig. 1). Altitudes in Luoping County range from 772 to 2468 m above sea level. Luoping is characterized by year-round precipitation, being located within one of the highest rainfall areas in Yunnan Province. Its climate is mainly dominated by plateau monsoon, with a mean annual temperature of 15.1 °C, mean annual rainfall 1743.9 mm, and annual average relative humidity 85%. There are several rivers in this region, including the Duoyi, Kuaize, Huangni and Nanpan Rivers. Two townships (Lubuge and Changdi) in this county are dominated by the Buyi people (Editorial Committee of Luoping County Annals, Luoping County Annals Assembly, 2014).

Fig. 1

Sketch map of study site.

Based on our prior studies and field investigations, Lubuge Township is an cultural hotspot of Buyi people in Yunnan Province due to its well-preserved traditional practices and beliefs. For example, the Buyi people of this region still wear clothing linked to their cultural identity. Previous studies of the Buyi in Yunnan have mainly focused on the morals, ethics, culture, religion, literature, arts and economic development of this region (Zhu and Wang, 2008; Gao, 2001). However, there is a lack of detailed information concerning the use of medicinal plants by the Buyi of Yunnan. The objective of this study is to document medicinal plants used to prevent and treat diseases by Buyi communities in Luoping County as well as traditional methods of preparation based on the Buyi medicinal system.

Methods

Ethnobotanical research was conducted in four Buyi rural communities (Duoyi, Muna, Bantai and Badahe) in Lubuge Township of Yunnan Province between 2015 and 2017. We carried our semi-structured interviews with Buyi households and Buyi healers who served as key informants. In addition, we carried out community walks and plant collections. The interviews asked informants about their use of medicinal plans and consisted of the following questions adapted from previous ethnobotanical studies in the regions (Liu et al., 2014; Wang, 2014): (1) What plants in your community have been traditionally used for medicines? (2) Who in your household and community uses medicinal plants? (3) What season/time of the year do you collect medicinal plants? (4) How are each of these medicinal plants collected? (5) Where do medicinal plants grow in your community and surroundings? (6) How are medicinal plants processed and prepared for treating human and animal ailments? and (7) How do the Buyi people preserve medical technologies and associated cultural practices and traditional knowledge?

Fifteen healers from four villages were chosen as key informants. Another 105 informants were interviewed to gather information about local herbal medicinal knowledge, including experienced villagers, local healers, and herbal vendors. Information was recorded regarding the local names, medicinal parts, preparations, functional attributed, perceived toxicity levels, and other uses by Buyi informants. Voucher specimens of all documented plants through interviews were collected through community walks with Buyi healers and were examined to determine the species and botanical family using the Flora of China and the Subject Database of China Plant and Medicinal Plants of Yunnan Province (Jin, 2012; http://www.plant.csdb.cn/; Wan, 2016). The voucher specimens were then deposited in the Herbarium at Kunming Institute of Botany of the Chinese Academy of Sciences (KUN).

Findings were analyzed to tabulate the total number of medicinal plants belonging to different botanical families as well as the number of plants used to treat and prevent specific health conditions.

Data analysis

The data collected of medicinal plants in study area were collated into an inventory listing all the medicinal plants and related information. The use-value (UV) of each medicinal plant was calculated to evaluate the relative importance of each plant based on the number of times cited and the number of informants. The formula for UV is

Ui is the number of times cited by each informant for a certain medicinal plant, while N is the total number of informants (Sujarwo and Caneva, 2016).

Results

Buyi medicinal plants

A total of 121 botanical species were reported for medicinal purposes by the Buyi informants belonging to 64 families (Table 1). The first written documentation of the medicinal uses of these plants; specifically, 56 species were recorded for the first time in this study as medicinal plants (labeled with an asterisk in Table 1). The majority of documented medicinal plants have distinct local names in the Buyi language (labeled with a triangle mark in Table 1) while some are identified by their Mandarin names.

Table 1

List of ethnomedicinal plants commonly used by the Buyi people in eastern Yunnan.

Voucher number	Scientific name	Family name	Local name	Part used	Preparation	UV	Medicinal uses	Poisonous tissue	Additional local uses
LBG097a	Achyranthes longifolia M.	Amaranthaceae	Hong niu xi	Whole plant	Decoction	0.43	Anaemia
LBG018a	Acmella calva (DC.) R.K.Jansen	Compositae	Jin niu kou	Flower	Soak in alcohol	0.37	Toothache, dental caries
LBGB001	Acorus calamus L.	Acoraceae	Guo cang pu▲	Whole plant	Crush and poultice	0.44	Inflammation of lymph	Root	Ornamental plant at dragon boat festival
LBG092a	Justicia adhatoda L.	Acanthaceae	Guo zuan	Stem, leaf, flower	Crush and poultice	0.12	Inflammation
LBG047	Agrimonia pilosa Ledeb.	Rosaceae	Na gang	Leaf	Decoction	0.41	Hepatitis, nasosinusitis
LBG075	Ajuga decumbens Thunb.	Labiatae	Nia zi mu guai	Whole plant	Crush and poultice	0.23	Injuries from falls
LBG011a	Alocasia cucullata (Lour.) G.Don	Araceae	Bi shi lin	Rhizome, stem, leaf	Decoction	0.30	Gastroenteropathy, stomachache	Whole	Ornamental plant
LBG010a	Alsophila spinulosa (Wall. ex Hook.) R.	Cyatheaceae	Long gu feng	Stem, leaf	Decoction	0.45	Injuries from falls, rheumatism, epilepsy	Whole	Landscape plan
LBG032a	Alstonia scholaris (L.) R. Br.	Apocynaceae	Ba zhua jin long	Stem, leaf	Decoction	0.14	Hemostasis, acesodyne	Leaf and bark	Latex for the raw materials of chewing gum
LBG015	Alstonia yunnanensis Diels.	Apocynaceae	San bai bang	Leaf	Crush and poultice	0.41	Fracture, ostealgia, injuries from falls	Leaf
LBG014a	Angiopteris sp.	Angiopteridaceae	Gu li wai	Rhizome	Decoction	0.24	Rheumatism, epilepsy
LBG056a	Ardisia mamillata Hance.	Myrsinaceae	Mao qing gang	Whole plant	Decoction	0.45	Rheumatism, ostealgia, injuries from falls
LBGB002	Artemisia carvifolia Buch.-Ham. ex Roxb.	Compositae	Ya ai	Leaf	Decoction, fume	0.45	Inflammation
LBG112	Artemisia argyi H.Lév. & Vaniot	Compositae	Bai hao	Stem, leaf	Crush and poultice	0.44	Nose bleeding, traumatic injury, wound		Ornamental plant at dragon boat festival
LBG012a	Asplenium antiquum Makino	Aspleniaceae	Ming rong ruo	Leaf	Crush and poultice	0.23	Rheumatism
LBG079a	Basella rubra L.	Basellaceae	Teng qi	Vine, leaf	Decoction, broth	0.35	Anaemia		Fruit juice as a harmless food colorants
LBG108	Boehmeria nivea (L.) Gaudich.	Urticaceae	Da huo ma	Stem, leaf	Crush and poultice, soak in alcohol	0.49	Rheumatism		Fiber crops
LBGB003	Boehmeria siamensis Craib.	Urticaceae	Ge ju lw	Bark, leaf	Crush and poultice	0.27	Fracture, ostealgia, injuries from falls
LBGB004	Bougainvillea glabra Choisy	Nyctaginaceae	Luo lin	Root	Crush and poultice	0.25	Detumescence, hemostasis		Ornamental plant
LBG004a	Bryophyllum pinnatum (Lam.) Oken	Crassulaceae	Luo di sheng gen	Stem, leaf	Decoction	0.17	Detumescence, burn		Ornamental plant
LBG029a	Buddleja officinalis Maxim.	Loganiaceae	Lu ya	Stem, leaf, flower	Decoction	0.26	Icteric hepatitis	Root, leaf	Yellow dyestuffs
LBG090	Bulbophyllum odoratissimum (Sm.) Lindl. ex Wall.	Orchidaceae	Guo sang ye	Whole plant	Decoction, crush and poultice	0.16	Pneumonia, pulmonary tuberculosis, fracture		Ornamental plant
LBG078a	Callicarpa arborea Roxb.	Verbenaceae	Mang zi	Stem, leaf	Crush and poultice	0.28	Inflammation, hemostasis		Landscape plant
LBG087a	Callicarpa bodinieri H.Lév.	Verbenaceae	Jie gu dan	Whole plant	Crush and poultice	0.25	Fracture		Landscape plant
LBG101a	Campylandra wattii C.B.Clarke.	Liliaceae	Wan nian zhu	Stem	Crush and poultice, soak in alcohol	0.32	Hemorrhoids		Ornamental plant
LBGB005	Canna indica L.	Cannaceae	Ya yai	Root	Crush and decoction	0.21	Gynecologic diseases		Ornamental plant
LBG074	Carthamus tinctorius L.	Compositae	Hong hua▲	Flower	Crush and decoction	0.40	Overwork, hemostasis		Edible oil
LBG065	Centella asiatica (L.) Urb.	Umbelliferae	Gai liang	Whole plant	Decoction	0.38	Jaundice, hepatitis
LBG058	Chloranthus holostegius (Hand.-Mazz.) C.Pei & San	Chloranthaceae	Si kuai wa▲	Whole plant	Decoction	0.42	Injuries from falls, overwork, rheumatism, pediatric fever	Whole
LBG021a	Chonemorpha megacalyx Pierre ex Spire	Apocynaceae	Yin si du zhong	Bark	Decoction, broth	0.15	Nephropathy	Hairs
LBGB006	Cinnamomum glanduliferum (Wall.) Meisn.	Lauraceae	Mai shang	Fruit	Crush and decoction	0.41	Fever	Camphor	Repellent
LBGB007	Cirsium japonicum (Thunb.) Fisch. ex DC.	Compositae	Guo ai	Root	Crush and decoction	0.19	Injuries from falls
LBG052a	Clerodendrum yunnanense Hu.	Verbenaceae	Chou mu dan	Root, leaf	Decoction	0.47	Rheumatism, sore on waist and leg
LBGB008	Crotalaria sessiliflora L.	Liliaceae	Na jio	Whole plant	Decoction	0.22	Pediatric diseases	Seed
LBG114a	Cudrania tricuspidata (Carrière) Bureau ex Lavallée	Moraceae	Lao shui ci	Stem, leaf	Decoction	0.26	Icteric hepatitis		Yellow dyestuff
LBG002	Cycas revoluta Thunb.	Cycadaceae	Bi sang	Whole plant	Decoction	0.15	Gastritis, gastrorrhagia, large intestine bleeding	Seed	Edible starch of stems and landscape plant
LBG062	Cynanchum auriculatum Royle ex Wight	Asclepiadaceae	Ge shan xiao	Earthnut	Decoction	0.43	Gastrosis	Root
LBG104a	Dendrobium loddigesii Rolfe.	Orchidaceae	Huang cao▲	Whole plant	Decoction	0.14	Legs paralysis, bedridden		Ornamental plant
LBGB009	Dichondra micrantha Urb.	Convolvulaceae	Ting ma	Whole plant	Decoction	0.45	Fracture, ostealgia, injuries from falls		Ornamental plant
LBG008a	Dichrocephala integrifolia (L.f.) Kuntze.	Compositae	N/A	Whole plant	Decoction	0.21	Pulmonary tuberculosis	Whole
LBG098a	Dicliptera chinensis (L.) Juss.	Acanthaceae	Guo jiang	Whole plant	Decoction	0.19	Cholecystitis
LBG095a	Diuranthera major Hemsl.	Liliaceae	Xiao huang qi	Root, flower	Decoction	0.15	Gynaecopathia, icteric hepatitis		Ornamental plant
LBG006	Duchesnea indica (Jacks.) Focke.	Rosaceae	Gao ma	Stem, leaf	Crush and poultice	0.22	Snakebite	Whole	Ornamental plant
LBG066a	Eclipta prostrata (L.) L.	Compositae	Han lian cao	Stem, leaf, flower	Decoction	0.15	Hepatitis
LBGB010	Eriobotrya japonica (Thunb.) Lindl.	Rosaceae	Pipa▲	Fruit	Eat	0.43	Lung disease	Seed and leaf	Fruit
LBG044	Eucommia ulmoides Oliv.	Eucommiaceae	Gao wang ma	Stem	Decoction	0.35	Nephritis
LBG026a	Euonymus yunnanensis Franch.	Celastraceae	Jin si du zhong	Stem	Decoction	0.21	Injuries from falls, rheumatism, wound	Whole
LUGB011	Euphorbia helioscopia L.	Euphorbiaceae	Guo ya	Whole plant	Decoction	0.14	Stomach, intestine disease	Whole
LBG024a	Flemingia macrophylla (Willd.) Merr.	Papilionaceae	Guo bu a	Root	Crush and poultice	0.31	Traumatic injury
LBGB012	Foeniculum vulgare Mill.	Umbelliferae	Ya wan	Whole plant	Decoction	0.44	Stomach, intestine disease		Vegetables and seasoning
LBG069	Gardenia jasminoides J.Ellis.	Rubiaceae	Zhi zi	Fruit	Decoction	0.25	Icteric hepatitis		Ornamental plant and dyestuffs
LBG072	Gentiana rigescens Franch. ex Hemsl.	Gentianaceae	Long dan▲	Whole plant	Decoction	0,37	Inflammation, liver trouble, stomatitis
LBG096	Glechoma longituba (Nakai) Kuprian.	Labiatae	Ba ge nu nang	Stem, leaf	Decoction	0.41	Pediatric fever, overwork, strain, fracture
LBG055a	Hedera helix L.	Araliaceae	San gu feng	Vine, leaf	Medicine bath	0.14	Skin disinfection	Berry	Landscape plant
LBG111	Hedera nepalensis K.Koch.	Araliaceae	San gu feng lin	Vine, leaf	Decoction	0.57	Furuncle on foot, eliminating naevi		Landscape plant
LBGB013	Hibiscus syriacus L.	Malvaceae	Guo mu jin	Flower	Decoction	0.39	Stomach, intestine disease		Landscape plant
LBG053	Houttuynia cordata Thunb.	Saururaceae	Bie lan	Root	Decoction	0.44	Duresis	Whole	Vegetables and seasoning
LBG071a	Hypericum japonicum Thunb.	Hypericaceae	Tian ji huang▲	Stem	Decoction	0.23	Hepatitis
LBGB014	Iris tectorum Maxim.	Iridaceae	Ya yan hua	Rhizome	Crush and poultice	0.41	Injuries from falls, rheumatism, wound	Stem and root	Ornamental plant
LBGB015	Juncus effusus L.	Juncaceae	Guo tang	Stem	Decoction	0.31	Urethral problems
LBG078	Leonurus japonicus Houtt.	Labiatae	Guo gang leng	Whole plant	Decoction	0.51	Gynaecopathia	Seed
LBG115	Lepisorus sp.	Polypodiaceae	Piao dai cao	Whole plant	Decoction	0.32	Sore throat
LBG081a	Ligularia hodgsonii Hook.	Compositae	Gong ai ao	Whole plant	Boil and poultice	0.12	Pruritus
LBG067	Liquidambar formosana Hance.	Hamamelidaceae	Geng xiang (lu lu tong)	Leaf, fruit	Crush and poultice, decoction	0.62	Rheumatism		Black dyestuff and construction
LBG070	Lonicera japonica Thunb.	Caprifoliaceae	Jin yin hua▲	Stem, leaf	Decoction	0.43	Influenza, tonsillite
LBG073a	Loranthus sp.	Loranthaceae	Ma sang ji sheng	Stem, leaf	Decoction	0.36	Ischialgia, paralysis, injuries from falls
LBG025	Lygodium japonicum (Thunb.) Sw.	Lygodiaceae	Gu gou	Whole plant	Decoction, broth	0.42	Lithangiuria, diabetes
LBG118	Mahonia bealei (Fortune) Pynaert.	Berberidaceae	N/A	Whole plant	Decoction, broth	0.43	Ulcer furunculosis, hot eyes		Landscape plant
LBG120a	Mahonia fortunei (Lindl.) Fedde	Berberidaceae	N/A	Whole plant	Decoction	0.43	Inflammation, jaundice, hot eyes		Landscape plant
LBG023a	Marsdenia tenacissima (Roxb.) Moon	Asclepiadaceae	Gao dou sha	Root	Decoction	0.27	Lung heat, phthisic, pulmonary tuberculosis, antineoplastic
LBG051a	Momordica charantia L.	Curcurbitaceae	Gao ma la gang mu	Vine, leaf	Decoction	0.39	Hepatitis, nasosinusitis		Vegetable
LBGB016	Morus alba L.	Moraceae	Mai sang	Fruit, leaf	Eat,decoction	0.35	Common cold		Fruit
LBG057	Munronia pinnata (Wall.) W.Theob.	Meliaceae	Ai tuo tuo	Whole plant	Decoction	0.51	Overwork, rheumatism	Whole
LBG028a	Myrica esculenta Buch.-Ham. ex D. Don.	Myricaceae	Hai pei lei	Bark	Decoction	0.22	Chronic enteritis		Fruit
LBGB017	Nandina domestica Thunb.	Berberidaceae	Guo bei ling	Root	Crush and decoction	0.32	Inflammation, inflammation of lymph	Fruit	Landscaped plant
LBG091a	Oberonia cavaleriei Finet.	Orchidaceae	Mou lang	Whole plant	Decoction crush and poultice	0.41	Traumatic injury, bleeding, fracture, gonorrhea
LBG059a	Oenanthe javanica (Blume) DC.	Umbelliferae	Bai hua cao	Whole plant	Decoction	0.36	Rheumatism, gynaecopathia		Vegetable
LBG045	Oroxylum indicum (L.) Kurz	Bignoniaceae	Wan mei long gua	Fruit	Decoction	0.40	Hepatitis, nasosinusitis
LBG088	Oxalis corniculata L.	Oxalidaceae	Suan jiang cao	Whole plant	Crush and poultice	0.26	Fracture, overwork, snakebite	Whole	Ornamental plant
LBG060a	Paederia scandens (Lour.) Merr.	Rubiaceae	Niu jin teng	Vine, leaf	Decoction	0.52	Rheumatism	Whole
LBG068a	Panax notoginseng (Burkill) F.H.Chen	Araliaceae	San qi▲	Rhizome	Decoction	0.43	Blood circulation, injuries from falls
LBGB022	Peristrophe japonica (Thunb.) Bremek.	Acanthaceae	Guo yue	Stem, leaf	Decoction	0.13	Inflammation, hemostasis, Gynecologic diseases		Red dyestuff
LBG038	Pinus yunnanensis Franch.	Pinaceae	Da jie	Stem	Decoction	0.44	Rheumatism, injuries from falls		Construction
LBG013	Plantago major L.	Plantaginaceae	Guo po sheng	Whole plant	Decoction	0.43	Nasosinusitis, pulmonary tuberculosis, nephritis
LBGB018	Platycodon grandiflorus (Jacq.) A.DC.	Campanulaceae	Jie geng▲	Root	Decoction	0.42	Lung disease
LBG049a	Pollia miranda (H.Lév.) H.Hara.	Commelinaceae	N/A	Stem, leaf	Decoction	0.18	Inflammation
LBG019a	Polygonatum kingianum Collett & Hemsl.	Liliaceae	Guo dao ji	Rhizome	Decoction, broth	0.41	Swirl, dizzy
LBG061a	Polygonum capitatum Buch.-Ham. ex D.Don	Polygonaceae	Ba gu yan	Whole plant	Decoction	0.24	Analgesic
LBG121	Fallopia multiflora (Thunb.) Harald.	Polygonaceae	He shou wu▲	Earthnut	Decoction	0.42	Hepatitis, anaemia
LBG080	Portulaca oleracea L.	Portulacaceae	Gao mao du	Stem, leaf	Decoction	0.38	Malnutrition, indigestion syndrome		Vegetable
LBG005a	Potentilla lineata Trevir.	Rosaceae	Fan bai ye	Whole plant	Decoction	0.28	Gastroenteritis, gastrorrhagia, bloody flux, dysentery
LBG063a	Lobelia angulata G.Forst.	Campanulaceae	Bi ye ya mu	Whole plant	Decoction	0.25	Rheumatism, traumatic injury
LBG022	Prunella vulgaris L.	Labiatae	Xia ku cao▲	Whole plant, leaf	Burn into ash	0.39	Nasosinusitis
LBG003	Pteris cretica L.	Pteridaceae	Feng wei cao	Stem, leaf	Decoction	0.22	Cholecystitis
LBG020	Reineckea carnea (Andrews) Kunth	Liliaceae	Fen mei wai fing	Leaf	Crush and poultice, soak in alcohol	0.42	Fracture, rheumatism, injuries from falls		Ornamental plant
LBGB021	Reynoutria japonica Houtt.	Polygonaceae	Guo xie ling	Stem, leaf	Crush and poultice	0.26	Fracture, rheumatism, injuries from falls
LBG048a	Rhaphidophora decursiva (Roxb.) Schott	Araceae	Guo shan long	Vine, leaf	Decoction	0.32	Gastritis, gastrorrhagia, large intestine bleeding
LBG001	Rumex nepalensis Spreng.	Polygonaceae	Da huang	Whole plant	Decoction	0,17	Inflammation, detumescence, diminish sore
LBG104	Sabia parviflora Wall.	Sabiaceae	Ya xi qiang	Whole plant	Decoction	0.43	Hepatitis, icteric hepatitis		Tea
LBG035	Sargentodoxa cuneata (Oliv.) Rehder & E.H.Wilson	Sargentodoxaceae	Gao lu (gao zai)	Root, stem, leaf	Decoction	0.58	Rheumatism, injuries from falls		Cane substitute
LBG064	Schefflera venulosa (Wight & Arn.) Harms	Araliaceae	Mai dang du	Stem, leaf	Decoction	0.53	Hemostasis, acesodyne, fracture, rheumatism
LBG039	Schisandra propinqua (Wall.) Baill.	Schisandraceae	Gao yi nou	Vine	Decoction, soak in alcohol, broth	0.61	Tonic
LBG082	Senecio scandens Buch.-Ham. ex D.Don	Compositae	Xiao gan yao	Whole plant	Decoction	0.41	Gastric diseases	Whole
LBG054a	Sinomenium acutum (Thunb.) Rehder & E.H.Wilson	Menispermaceae	Ge bou	Vine	Decoction	0.55	Rheumatism	Stem and root
LBG083a	Smilax china L.	Smilacaceae	Jin gang ci	Rhizome	Decoction	0.21	Nephropathy, overwork		Edible starch from root, fence and vines.
LBG085a	Smilax glabra Roxb.	Smilacaceae	Tu fu ling	Rhizome	Decoction; soak in alcohol	0.19	Injuries, nephropathy, overwork, smallpox
LBG116a	Smilax sp.	Smilacaceae	Jin gang teng	Rhizome	Decoction	0.48	Eczema, Rheumatism, detoxifying, detumescence
LBG089a	Solanum indicum L.	Solanaceae	Huang la guo	Root, fruit, seed	Decoction, fume	0.53	Rheumatism, dental caries	Whole
LBG007	Solanum nigrum L.	Solanaceae	Ma ding	Fruit	Crush and poultice	0.42	Furuncle on foot, eliminating naevi	Immature fruit	Young leaves for vegetable, mature fruit edible.
LBG017	Stephania delavayi Diels.	Menispermaceae	Ri mu dui	Earthnut	Crushed and poultice, decoction	0.54	Rheumatism, stomachache, gastroduodenal ulcer
LBG016a	Tacca chantrieri André	Taccaceae	Wang le xiang	Stem	Crush and poultice	0.14	Skin infection, detumescence	Whole
LBGB019	Taraxacum mongolicum Hand.-Mazz.	Compositae	Luo ai	Whole plant	Decoction	0.41	Inflammation, inflammation of lymph		Vegetable
LBG036a	Tetrastigma sichouense C.L. Li.	Vitaceae	Na gao le	Root	Decoction	0.45	Rheumatism, gastropathy
LBGB020	Toricellia tiliifolia DC.	Cornaceae	Guo qiang ling	Leaf	Crush and poultice	0.43	Fracture
LBG041	Uncaria macrophylla Wall.	Rubiaceae	Gou wou nou	Vine	Decoction	0.51	Hepatitis, acute icteric hepatitis	Stem
LBG040	Uncaria scandens (Sm.) Hutch.	Rubiaceae	Wou nou	Vine	Decoction	0.13	Rheumatism, injuries from falls
LBG109a	Urtica fissa E. Pritz.	Urticaceae	Huo ma	Shoot	Decoction	0.62	Rheumatism, digestive disease	Whole
LBG009	Verbena officinalis L.	Verbenaceae	Nia muen	Whole plant	Decoction	0.42	Cholecystitis, icteric hepatitis, hepatitis, pruritus	Whole
LBG027	Woodwardia japonica (L. f.) Sm.	Blechnaceae	Guan zhong	Root	Decoction	0.25	SARS, cephalomeningitis
LBG046a	Xanthium strumarium L.	Compositae	Wa gou ma	Fruit	Decoction	0.43	Hepatitis, nasosinusitis	Seed
LBG037a	Zanthoxylum nitidum (Roxb.) DC.	Rutaceae	Liang mian zhen▲	Root	Decoction	0.48	Chronic enteritis	Whole

Notes: ▲ Names were pronounced the same as Mandarin Chinese.

56 species had medicinal values for the first time recorded from this study.

Among the 64 botanical families documented in this study, the Compositae was the most prevalent family with 10 species followed by the Polygonaceae, Araliaceae, Rubiaceae, Verbenaceae, Labiatae and Liliaceae (with 4 species each). Families with 3 species include Rosaceae, Apocynaceae, Smilacaceae, and Orchidaceae. Families with 2 species include Berberidaceae, Menispermaceae, Urticaceae, Umbelliferae, Asclepiadaceae, Solanaceae, Acanthaceae, and Araceae.

The most commonly reported medicinal plants include the following: Sargentodoxa cuneata (Lardizabalaceae), Uncaria scandens (Rubiaceae), Paederia scandens (Rubiaceae), Sinomenium acutium (Menispermaceae), Stephania delavayi (Menispermaceae), Hedera nepalensis (Araliaceae), Schefflera venulosa (Araliaceae), Munronia pinnata (Meliaceae), Munronia henryi (Meliaceae), Schisandra propinqua (Schisandraceae), Uncaria macrophylla (Rubiaceae), Zanthoxylum nitidum (Rubiaceae), Ardisia mamillata (Primulaceae), Alsophila spinulosa (Cyatheaceae), Smilax sp. (Smilacaceae), Liquidambar formosana (Altingiaceae), Clerodendrum yunnanense (Verbenaceae), Tetrastigma sichouense (Vitaceae), Boehmeria nivea (Urticaceae), Solanum indicum (Solanaceae), Pinus yunnanensis (Pinaceae).

Plant parts and types of preparation

The plant parts used for medicinal purposes of the documented medicinal plants of the Buyi medical system are listed in Table 2. Leaves (23.72%) and whole plants (23.72%) were the most frequently used parts, followed by stems (17.95%) and roots (11.54%). Other parts that are less prevalent include the vine (6.41%), rhizome (4.49%) and fruit (5.11%).

Table 2

Plant parts used.

Plant part	Species number of uses	Percent (%)
Leaf	37	23.72
Whole plant	37	23.72
Stem	28	17.95
Root	18	11.54
Vine	10	6.41
Rhizome	7	4.49
Flower	4	2.56
Fruit	8	5.13
Earthnut	3	1.92
Bark	2	1.28
Seed	1	0.64
Shoot	1	0.64
Total	156	100

The most common method of preparing the medicinal plants is using the decoction method (62.8%), followed by crushing the plant material for making a poultice (23.1%), broth (4.1%), soaking in alcohol (2.5%). Some species were used with other natural materials, such as the preparation of tonics made of medicinal plants combined with brown sugar, grains, chicken, pork and other materials.

Medicinal plant uses

The documented plants in this study are used for a wide range of health conditions (Table 3) by Buyi communities. A total of 40 health conditions were reported for the documented medicinal plants used by the Buyi. The most prevalent uses of the medicinal plants were for rheumatism (12.4%), trauma and injuries (9.6%), detoxification (5.7%), inflammation (5.1%), gynecological diseases (4.0%), tonics for overall health (2.8%), and pediatric diseases (1.7%).

Table 3

Diseases treated with herbal medicinal plants in Luoping County.

Diseases	Number of citation	Percent (%)
Rheumatism	22	12.4
Trauma and injuries	17	9.6
Liver diseases	15	8.4
Intoxication	10	5.7
Inflammation	9	5.1
Analgesic	8	4.5
Fracture	7	4
Gastric diseases	7	4
Overwork	6	3.3
Nose ailments	6	3.3
Renal ailments	5	2.8
Skin diseases	5	2.8
Intestinal diseases	5	2.8
Respiratory system	5	2.8
Tonic	5	2.8
Hemostatic	5	2.8
Gynecologic diseases	4	2.3
Pediatric diseases	4	2.3
Cholecystic diseases	3	1.7
Parasitic diseases	2	1.1
Mental diseases	2	1.1
Invigoration	2	1.1
Anemia	2	1.1
Snakebite	2	1.1
Tooth ailments	2	1.1
Foot diseases	2	1.1
Freckle ailments	2	1.1
Calculous diseases	1	0.6
Diabetes	1	0.6
Cephalomeningitis	1	0.6
Urethral ailments	1	0.6
Physical weakness	1	0.6
Common cold	1	0.6
Burn	1	0.6
Neoplasm	1	0.6
Dizzy problems	1	0.6
Haemorrhoids	1	0.6
Infertile ailments	1	0.6
Smallpox	1	0.6
Gonorrhea	1	0.6
Total	177	100

The most prevalent plants reported for treatment of rheumatism were Alsophila spinulosa (Cyatheaceae), Ardisia mamillata (Myrsinaceae), Angiopteris sp. (Marattiaceae), Asplenium antiquum (Aspleniaceae), Boehmeria nivea (Urticaceae), Chloranthus holostegius (Chloranthaceae), Clerodendrum yunnanense (Verbenaceae), Euonymus yunnanensis (Celastraceae), Iris tectorum (Iridaceae), Liquidambar formosana (Altingiaceae), Munronia henryi (Meliaceae), Oenanthe javanica (Apiaceae), Paederia scandens (Rubiaceae), Pinus yunnanensis (Pinaceae), Reineckea carnea (Asparagaceae), Reynoutria japonica (Polygonaceae), Sargentodoxa cuneata (Lardizabalaceae), Schefflera venulosa (Araliaceae), Sinomenium acutum (Menispermaceae), Smilax glabra (Smilacaceae), Solanum indicum (Solanaceae), Stephania delavayi (Menispermaceae), Tetrastigma sichouense (Vitaceae), and Uncaria scandens (Rubiaceae).

Another important medicinal plant category for the Buyi is trauma and injuries. The surveyed Buyi communities have notable knowledge about the use of medicinal plants for physical trauma and injuries given the nature of farming activities that may cause body injuries and sores. The prevalent medicinal plants reported for used for physical trauma and injuries were Chloranthus holostegius (Chloranthaceae), Smilax glabra (Smilacaceae), Reineckea carnea (Asparagaceae), Glechoma longituba (Lamiaceae), Oxalis corniculata (Oxalidaceae), Sargentodoxa cuneata (Lardizabalaceae), Alstonia yunnanensis (Apocynaceae), Oberonia myosurus (Orchidaceae), Bulbophyllum odoratissimum (Orchidaceae), Callicarpa bodinieri (Lamiaceae), Uncaria scandens (Rubiaceae), Pinus yunnanensis (Pinaceae), Alsophila spinulosa (Cyatheaceae), Evonymus yunnanensis (Polyporaceae), Schefflera venulosa (Araliaceae), Panax notoginseng (Araliaceae), Schisandra propinqua (Schisandraceae), Zanthoxylum nitidum (Rutaceae) and Ardisia mamillata (Myrsinaceae).

The interviews revealed that medicinal plants used for detoxification and inflammation have extensive definitions and usages. Plants used for detoxification and treating inflammation are primarily for reducing inflammation in the liver, gallbladder, lung, kidney, head and nose. Medicinal plants that were reported for treating inflammation linked to liver ailments were Momordica charantia (Cucurbitaceae), Hypericum japonicum (Hypericaceae), Xanthium sibiricum (Asteraceae), Eclipta prostrate (Asteraceae), Bulbophyllum odoratissimum (Orchidaceae), Polygonum multiflorum (Polygonaceae), Polygonum cuspidatum (Polygonaceae), Verbena officinalis (Verbenaceae), Uncaria macrophylla (Rubiaceae), Gardenia jasminoides (Rubiaceae), Agrimonia pilosa (Rosaceae), Sabia parviflora (Sabiaceae), Cudrania tricuspidata (Moraceae), and Oroxylum indicum (Bignoniaceae).

Other prevalent medicinal plant uses noted were the fruits of Tetradium ruticarpum to treat stomachache, leaf of Solanum spirale to treat skin diseases, and the root of Begonia grandis subsp. sinensis to treat burns. Although only a few species were reported for treatment of gynecological diseases, the informants highlighted that these species are considered very important for women. Four of these important plants used for are gynecological conditions are Diuranthera major (Asparagaceae), Leonurus japonicas (Lamiaceae), O. javanica (Apiaceae), and Marsdenia tenacissima (Apocynaceae).

Several medicinal plants used for overall health tonics were cooked with meats, including pork and chicken, which were viewed as improving the medicinal effect. These plants were Polygonatum kingianum (Asparagaceae), Basella rubra (Basellaceae), Urtica fissa (Urticaceae), and Achyranthes longifolia (Amaranthaceae).

Plants for treatment pediatric diseases had a low proportion among the total medicinal plants; however, while only several plants are used by the Buyi for medicinal purposes, they were reported as being very important. Pediatric malnutrition and indigestion are treated in Buyi communities by G. longituba (Lamiaceae), Senecio scandens (Asteraceae), Metaplexis japonica (Apocynaceae), Portulaca oleracea (Portulacaceae). Hedera helix (Araliaceae) is used for skin-detoxification for newly born infants.

Poisonous species

As displayed in Table 1, almost one third (28%) of the reported medicinal plants (35/121) are perceived to be toxic. The most common poisonous plant part reported by informants was the whole plant (41.46%), followed by root (12.20%) and seed (12.20%). Other less poisonous plant parts that were reported are the leaf (9.76%), stem (7.32%) and bark (4.88%) (Table 4). Many of medicinal plants used by Buyi were reported to have side effects, highlighting the importance of ethnomedical knowledge of medicinal plant utilization in order to prevent serious harm to the human body.

Table 4

Poisonous tissue statistics.

Poisonous tissue	Number	Percent (%)
Whole plant	17	41.46
Root	5	12.20
Seed	5	12.20
Leaf	4	9.76
Stem	3	7.32
Bark	2	4.88
Camphor	1	2.44
Berry	1	2.44
Fruit	1	2.44
Unripe fruit	1	2.44
Seeding	1	2.44
Total	41	100.00

Other uses of medicinal plants

In addition to medical uses, 41% of the reported medicinal plants (50) have other uses (Table 1, Table 5). The most prevalent uses of the documented plants other than medicine included ornamental (32%) and edible (30%) purposes, followed by landscape design (16%) and dyeing (10%). The remaining usages include for construction (4%), fencing (2%), and herbal teas (2%).

Table 5

Types of multiple uses of medicinal plants used by local people.

Kind of usage	Number of species	Percent (%)
Ornamental	16	32.00
Edible	15	30.00
Landscaped	8	16.00
Dyestuffs	5	10.00
Construction	2	4.00
Cane substitute	1	2.00
Tea	1	2.00
Repellent	1	2.00
Fence	1	2.00
Total	50	100.00

Diverse diagnostic methods

The Buyi medicinal system consists of unique diagnostic and treatment methods, particularly for the treatment of fractures, trauma and injuries, rheumatism, gynecological diseases and snakebites. There are some traditional Buyi medicinal prescriptions that have been shown to be effective in modern pharmacological experiments and clinical trials, and some pharmaceutical companies have developed these into new drugs or healthcare products, such as “Qing Feng Hu Gan Cha” and “Yi Si Chun Ru Ji”.

The Buyi healers often used fresh and raw plants for their medicines, and they typically do not use complex methods to process the remedies. For example, the fresh leaves of Toricellia tiliifolia are usually used to treat fractures. Methods of grinding, pounding, and powdering were most widely used to prepare these remedies in the study area.

This study found that 121 medicinal plant species belonging to 64 families are used by the Buyi to cure seven health conditions considered the most important for treatment (rheumatism, trauma and injuries, detoxifying and inflammation, gynecological disease, weakness, pediatric disease). The disease spectrum found in this study is similar to the Buyi medical culture in Guizhou Province, which can be explained by the following two reasons:

The Buyi people usually live in mountainous and high humidity areas. Such geographic and climate factors could cause these aliments to become common and to develop into regional diseases.

The Buyi often have to do onerous labor work including farming to support their livelihoods, which might make them more likely to suffer from injuries. Therefore, the medicinal knowledge for treating diseases such as trauma and injuries could have been gradually accumulated across the generations. For example, Chloranthus holostegius was commonly recognized by local people for its specific medicinal effect on injuries from falls and fractures.

Buyi medicinal resources and their multipurposes

The local healers have extensive knowledge on medicinal plants resources. Among the 121 identified species, most of them were collected from the wild habitats. Different plant parts are used to treat various diseases (Table 2).

Only a few medicinal plants were brought from neighboring regions. For example, Eucommia ulmmoides was purchased from Qianxinan Prefecture in Guizhou Province. We ascribe this situation to the following factors:

Like the natural conditions of many other Buyi villages, the Buyi villages in Luoping County are located in an area with a well-preserved natural habitat, good ecological environment, and rich biodiversity, which may provide a favorable foundation for medicinal plant resources for the local folk doctors.

The Buyi are one of the indigenous groups in southwest China. They gradually formed their epistemologies, such as the value of harmonious relationship with nature during a long process of production and practice. In the belief-system of Buyi people, they usually have pantheistical adorations, such as habitats (e.g. sacred mountains), plants (e.g. divine arbors, bamboo) animals or mythological creatures (e.g. fish, dragon), and natural elements (e.g. fire). All of these ideas played a positive role in environmental protection and sustained the Buyi ethnic culture over time.

Most local names of medicinal plants are in local Buyi pronunciation. But the pronouncement of 13 species is the same as mandarin Chinese, including Acorus calamus (Changpu), Carthamus tinctorius (Honghua), Chloranthus holostengius (Sikuaiwa), Dendrobium loddigesii (Huangcao), Eriobotrya japonica (Pipa), Gentiana rigescens (Longdan), Hypericum japonicum (Tianjihuang), Lonicera japonica (Jinyinhua), Oxalis corniculata (Suanjiangcao), Panax notoginseng (Sanqi), Plantago major (Cheqian), Prunella vuglaris (Xiakucao) and Zanthoxylum nitidum (Liang mian zhen). In fact, these 13 medicinal species are normally used as traditional Chinese medicine and widely used in many prescriptions. Since Buyi people are living alongside other linguistic groups, some local healers’ traditional medicinal technologies might be influenced by traditional Chinese medicine and by other ethnic groups. Therefore, local Buyi pronunciation of some medicines are same as mandarin Chinese.

Multipurpose plants play an important role in the diversity of plant utilization and can be used as an indicator of regional biocultural diversity. Two-use plants were most common among multipurpose plants, with ornamental-medicinal plants being the most popular among two-use plants. Some plants have three uses, such as Cycas revoluta, Gardenia jasminoides and Foeniculum vulgare. The multipurpose value of a plant is essentially determined by the plant itself. Trees tend to have more uses than herbaceous plants. Multipurpose plants studies contribute to the standard recording of regional or ethnic traditional ecological knowledge, the identification of plant uses with their potential applications, and the promotion of regional natural cultural diversity protection.

Discussion

The characteristics of Buyi medicinal plants in eastern Yunnan

Among the 64 botanical families documented in this study, the Compositae was the most prevalent family with 10 species. Medicinal plants in the Compositae have previously been shown to be commonly used by Buyi communities as well as easily obtained in their rural surroundings (Wu et al., 2017). As one of the largest families of seed plants over the world, the Compositae plants are easily available in local communities. The biomass and population sizes of Compositae plants are usually very large.

Specific edible uses of medicinal plants were as a vegetable, fruit, seasoning and starch (Sui et al., 2011). The local people used Smilax china as fence, and they hung Acorus calamus and Artemisia argyi on the door for cultural purposes and traditional way during Dragon Boat Festival (Shu et al., 2018). Houttuynia cordata and Portulaca oleracea have been used both as vegetable and medicine by local people for a long time (Ye et al., 2015). Finally, medicinal dietary ferns were frequently used by Buyi people, such as they used ferns to treat influenza (Teng et al., 2016; Ye et al., 2016).

Previous research has highlighted how Buyi healers use multiple traditional methods to treat diseases including pocket (Doudu) therapy, moxibustion (Jiukao) therapy, curettage (Guazhi) therapy, light therapy (Dadenghuo) therapy, and egg rolling (Gundan) therapy (Pan et al., 2003; Xiong and Long, 2018) (Table 6). The abundant medicinal plants in Buyi region provide resources for healer's multiple traditional methods to treat diseases.

Table 6

Traditional therapies used by the local healers.

Therapy type	Chinese name	Specific process	Diseases treated
Pocket therapy (Doudu)	兜肚疗法	Put medicines into a special sewing bag (Chinese name Doudu). Put it on the abdomen, so achieve the purpose of treatment through the pores of the skin to absorb drug smell. Usually used Zingiber officinale and Tetradium ruticarpum.	Gynecologic diseases, stomachache
Moxibustion therapy (Jiukao)	灸烤疗法	Dry leaves of Artemisia argyi and porphyrization, make moxa cone. Fire moxa cone, barbecue affected part.	Rheumatism
Curettage therapy (Guazhi)	刮治法	Use the edge of coppers, coins or bowls to dip in tung oil or canola oil, light scrapping skin, appear red mark.	Clearing heat, intestine disease, common cold
Light therapy (Dadenghuo)	打灯火疗法	Use the stem of Juncus effuses to dip in tung oil or canola oil, heat affected part and leave quickly.	Pediatric diseases
Egg rolling therapy (Gundan)	滚蛋疗法	Use cooked hot egg with eggshell to roll back and forth on the patients' stomach when the temperature of egg is moderate.	Common cold, intestine disease
Tangerine therapy (Gunju)	滚橘疗法	Use orange or smaller grapefruit roasted on the stove or fire hot, and then roll around the patients' forehead when their temperature is moderate.	Common cold, clearing heat
Canister therapy (Tongxun)	筒薰疗法	Decoct medicine into soup, and then pour the soup into bamboo tube when it is hot, use a wet towel to cover on the mouth of bamboo tube, post on the affected part, and let the heat washed up from the mouth of bamboo tube until the soup is cold.	Oral disease, intestine disease

Conservation issues

Some medicinal plants used by the local people had not been found in our field surveys in Luoping County. Furthermore, the new medicinal plants and remedies we have documented imply the medicinal knowledge in Buyi marginal regions in Yunnan Province may serve to supplement the whole Buyi medicinal system, which should be protected and maintained.

Nevertheless, our investigation indicated that the traditional medicinal knowledge and methods in Luoping County are facing a danger of extinction. After extensive interviews with the local healers, we summarized the following main reasons for this situation.

Firstly, the young generation has little interest or is not willing to work hard to study traditional medicinal knowledge. Most of them have left their hometowns to earn money in big cities such as Beijing, Guangzhou, and Kunming. For instance, an experienced herbal doctor who passed away in 2004 once asked his children to study their traditional medicinal knowledge. However, his children refused because she thought there is no value in studying this knowledge. Consequently, his precious medicinal experiences and knowledge have, unfortunately, faded way.

What makes a medicinal culture endangered is not just the number of users, but also how old the users are. If it is used by teens it is relatively safe. The critically endangered cultural systems are those that are only used by the elderly. Why do people reject the medicinal culture from their ancestors? When the next generation reaches their teens, they might not want to enter into the old tradition. The change is not always voluntary; the deadliest weapon's is often not government policy but economic globalization (Yang et al., 2015).

Secondly, the influences of mainstream medicinal culture are also causing reduced popularity of traditional medicinal knowledge. Compared with indigenous medicinal therapies, modern medical care often has advantages of fast recovery periods, precise curative effects, and other conveniences, so it has become a first choice of the local people. Only when some diseases cannot be cured by modern medicinal treatments, the local people will turn to the traditional medicine.

A growing interest in cultural identity may prevent the direst predications from coming true. The ethnic groups have not lost pride in their traditional remedies, but they have to adapt to higher social-economic pressures. They usually cannot refuse to use the modern medicine if they move to an urban area. When an unwritten and unrecorded traditional knowledge disappears, it is lost to science forever.

Thirdly, the inheritance and further development of the local Buyi medicinal culture is limited by some traditional conceptions such as limiting knowledge only to the men in the family. Women are not allowed to study traditional medicinal knowledge, or to use medicinal plants.

The present study revealed the richness of medicinal plants and importance of traditional medicinal knowledge among the Buyi communities in Luoping County. We understand the urgency and difficulties to save the endangered traditional knowledge. Further surveys are necessary to identify priority of traditional knowledge for better conservation. Intensive studies including phytochemical and pharmacological investigations will help to confirm the functions and dynamics of important Buyi herbal medicines such as Sabia parviflora and its crude products (Sui et al., 2011). The results from these efforts together supporting from current positive policies will be able to attract interests from stakeholders including local healers and their potential successors, publics, investors, enthusiasts, and institutions. Thus the endangered traditional Buyi medicinal knowledge will possibly be conserved throughout documentation, inheritance and sustainable uses.

In all 121 plant species documented in this study, two species (Cycas revoluta and Tacca chantrieri) are listed in China Red Data Book while three species of orchids (Dendrobium loddigesii, Oberonia cavaleriei and Bulbophyllum odoratissimum) will be listed. These species were used in a small amount, but they should be informed through various approaches such as new media, in particular, the most popular social media in China named WeChat. The alternatives to these species may be recommended since a lot of medicinal plants occur in Luoping County.

We anticipate that the traditional medicinal knowledge of the Buyi people in the marginal regions such as Yunnan should be emphasized, since it is an indispensable part of the whole Buyi medicinal culture. The remaining Buyi communities should be intensively investigated in order to build a comprehensive perspective on the Buyi medicinal knowledge system. Furthermore, local government policy support would be essential to ensure that the whole of Buyi medicinal culture is continuous development in a sustainable way (Yang et al., 2015).

Conclusion

Medicinal plants used by the Buyi people in Luoping are very diverse. One hundred and twenty-one species in 54 families were documented for treating various ailments based on our ethnobotanical surveys in only four villages, in which 56 species were recorded for the first time in this study. Leaves and whole plants were commonly used by the Buyi healers in the form of decoction. The Buyi communities have abundant medicinal resources and traditional knowledge. However along with the development of global economy, the specialized knowledge of Buyi medicine resources are threatened by human activities and natural causes, and associated traditional knowledge is eroding rapidly. So it is thus urgent and necessary to prevent the further loss of the specialized knowledge of ethnic group. This is the best accomplished by recording and documenting their unique practice and their relationship to medicinal plants.

Authors’ contributions

CL conceived of and designed the study. YX and XS conducted data collection, integrated the inventory and its analysis, and wrote the manuscript. CL, ZW, YX and XS identified the plants. SA supported with preparation of the manuscript.

Declaration of competing interest

The authors declare that they have no competing interests.