Beyond immune checkpoint blockade: emerging immunological strategies.

The success of checkpoint inhibitors has accelerated the clinical implementation of a vast mosaic of single agents and combination immunotherapies. However, the lack of clinical translation for a number of immunotherapies as monotherapies or in combination with checkpoint inhibitors has clarified that new strategies must be employed to advance the field. The next chapter of immunotherapy should examine the immuno-oncology therapeutic failures, and consider the complexity of immune cell-cancer cell interactions to better design more effective anticancer drugs. Herein, we briefly review the history of immunotherapy and checkpoint blockade, highlighting important clinical failures. We discuss the critical aspects - beyond T cell co-receptors - of immune processes within the tumour microenvironment (TME) that may serve as avenues along which new therapeutic strategies in immuno-oncology can be forged. Emerging insights into tumour biology suggest that successful future therapeutics will focus on two key factors: rescuing T cell homing and dysfunction in the TME, and reappropriating mononuclear phagocyte function for TME inflammatory remodelling. New drugs will need to consider the complex cell networks that exist within tumours and among cancer types.