Modeling Effects of Surface Properties and Probe Density for Nanoscale Biosensor Design: A Case Study of DNA Hybridization near Surfaces.

Electrochemical biosensors have extremely robust applications while offering ease of preparation, miniaturization, and tunability. By adjusting the arrangement and properties of immobilized probes on the sensor surface to optimize target-probe association, one can design highly sensitive and efficient sensors. In electrochemical nucleic acid biosensors, a self-assembled monolayer (SAM) is widely used as a tunable surface with inserted DNA or RNA probes to detect target sequences. The effects of inhomogeneous probe distribution across surfaces are difficult to study experimentally due to inadequate resolution. Regions of high probe density may inhibit hybridization with targets, and the magnitude of the effect may vary depending on the hybridization mechanism on a given surface. Another fundamental question concerns diffusion and hybridization of DNA taking place on surfaces and whether it speeds up or hinders molecular recognition. We used all-atom Brownian dynamics simulations to help answer these questions by simulating the hybridization process of single-stranded DNA (ssDNA) targets with a ssDNA probe on polar, nonpolar, and anionic SAMs at three different probe surface densities. Moreover, we simulated three tightly packed probe clusters by modeling clusters with different interprobe spacing on two different surfaces. Our results indicate that hybridization efficiency depends strongly on finding a balance that allows attractive forces to steer target DNA toward probes without anchoring it to the surface. Furthermore, we found that the hybridization rate becomes severely hindered when interprobe spacing is less than or equal to the target DNA length, proving the need for a careful design to both enhance target-probe association and avoid steric hindrance. We developed a general kinetic model to predict hybridization times and found that it works accurately for typical probe densities. These findings elucidate basic features of nanoscale biosensors, which can aid in rational design efforts and help explain trends in experimental hybridization rates at different probe densities.