Complete chloroplast genomes shed light on phylogenetic relationships, divergence time, and biogeography of Allioideae (Amaryllidaceae).

Allioideae includes economically important bulb crops such as garlic, onion, leeks, and some ornamental plants in Amaryllidaceae. Here, we reported the complete chloroplast genome (cpDNA) sequences of 17 species of Allioideae, five of Amaryllidoideae, and one of Agapanthoideae. These cpDNA sequences represent 80 protein-coding, 30 tRNA, and four rRNA genes, and range from 151,808 to 159,998 bp in length. Loss and pseudogenization of multiple genes (i.e., rps2, infA, and rpl22) appear to have occurred multiple times during the evolution of Alloideae. Additionally, eight mutation hotspots, including rps15-ycf1, rps16-trnQ-UUG, petG-trnW-CCA, psbA upstream, rpl32-trnL-UAG, ycf1, rpl22, matK, and ndhF, were identified in the studied Allium species. Additionally, we present the first phylogenomic analysis among the four tribes of Allioideae based on 74 cpDNA coding regions of 21 species of Allioideae, five species of Amaryllidoideae, one species of Agapanthoideae, and five species representing selected members of Asparagales. Our molecular phylogenomic results strongly support the monophyly of Allioideae, which is sister to Amaryllioideae. Within Allioideae, Tulbaghieae was sister to Gilliesieae-Leucocoryneae whereas Allieae was sister to the clade of Tulbaghieae- Gilliesieae-Leucocoryneae. Molecular dating analyses revealed the crown age of Allioideae in the Eocene (40.1 mya) followed by differentiation of Allieae in the early Miocene (21.3 mya). The split of Gilliesieae from Leucocoryneae was estimated at 16.5 mya. Biogeographic reconstruction suggests an African origin for Allioideae and subsequent spread to Eurasia during the middle Eocene. Cool and arid conditions during the late Eocene led to isolation between African and Eurasian species. African Allioideae may have diverged to South American taxa in the late Oligocene. Rather than vicariance, long-distance dispersal is the most likely explanation for intercontinental distribution of African and South American Allioideae species.