Louise J Fangupo1, Jillian J Haszard2, Barry J Taylor3, Andrew R Gray2, Julie A Lawrence4, Rachael W Taylor5. 1. Department of Medicine, University of Otago, Dunedin, New Zealand. 2. Centre for Biostatistics, University of Otago, Dunedin, New Zealand. 3. Office of the Dean, Dunedin School of Medicine, University of Otago, Dunedin, New Zealand. 4. Department of Women and Children's Health, University of Otago, Dunedin, New Zealand. 5. Department of Medicine, University of Otago, Dunedin, New Zealand. Electronic address: rachael.taylor@otago.ac.nz.
Abstract
BACKGROUND: Children consume ultra-processed food (UPF) from a young age, but the proportional contribution of UPF to young children's total energy intakes has not been evaluated in developed countries. OBJECTIVES: To describe UPF intake and associations with demographic factors in young children from 12 to 60 months of age. DESIGN: Cohort study comprising a secondary analysis of data from a randomized controlled trial. Demographic data were collected by questionnaire. At 12, 24, and 60 months of age validated food frequency questionnaires estimated percentage of energy intake from UPF (%kcal UPF). PARTICIPANTS/ SETTING: The 669 children were born in Dunedin, New Zealand, between May 2009 and December 2010. MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES: Mean percentage of energy intake from UPF at 12, 24, and 60 months of age, mean differences in %kcal UPF by demographic variables. STATISTICAL ANALYSES PERFORMED: Mixed effects regression models were used to estimate relationships between demographics and %kcal UPF. Multiple imputation methods were used to impute missing UPF data. RESULTS: UPF contributed mean (95% confidence interval) 45% (44%, 47%), 42% (41%, 44%), and 51% (50%, 52%) of energy intake to the diets of children at 12, 24, and 60 months of age, respectively. Energy intake from UPF was moderately correlated between 24 and 60 months (r = 0.36). No demographic factors were associated with mean %kcal UPF across time points, except for maternal obesity predicting higher UPF intake at 12 months. Bread, yoghurt, crackers, whole-wheat breakfast cereal, sausages, and muesli bars were among the 10 foods making the greatest contribution to mean %kcal UPF intakes at all time points. CONCLUSIONS: UPF contribute a substantial proportion of energy to the diets of young children. A range of foods with varying nutritional profiles contribute to these high intakes.
BACKGROUND: Children consume ultra-processed food (UPF) from a young age, but the proportional contribution of UPF to young children's total energy intakes has not been evaluated in developed countries. OBJECTIVES: To describe UPF intake and associations with demographic factors in young children from 12 to 60 months of age. DESIGN: Cohort study comprising a secondary analysis of data from a randomized controlled trial. Demographic data were collected by questionnaire. At 12, 24, and 60 months of age validated food frequency questionnaires estimated percentage of energy intake from UPF (%kcal UPF). PARTICIPANTS/ SETTING: The 669 children were born in Dunedin, New Zealand, between May 2009 and December 2010. MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES: Mean percentage of energy intake from UPF at 12, 24, and 60 months of age, mean differences in %kcal UPF by demographic variables. STATISTICAL ANALYSES PERFORMED: Mixed effects regression models were used to estimate relationships between demographics and %kcal UPF. Multiple imputation methods were used to impute missing UPF data. RESULTS: UPF contributed mean (95% confidence interval) 45% (44%, 47%), 42% (41%, 44%), and 51% (50%, 52%) of energy intake to the diets of children at 12, 24, and 60 months of age, respectively. Energy intake from UPF was moderately correlated between 24 and 60 months (r = 0.36). No demographic factors were associated with mean %kcal UPF across time points, except for maternal obesity predicting higher UPF intake at 12 months. Bread, yoghurt, crackers, whole-wheat breakfast cereal, sausages, and muesli bars were among the 10 foods making the greatest contribution to mean %kcal UPF intakes at all time points. CONCLUSIONS: UPF contribute a substantial proportion of energy to the diets of young children. A range of foods with varying nutritional profiles contribute to these high intakes.