Air Quality and Environmental Injustice in India: Connecting Particulate Pollution to Social Disadvantages.

While air pollution levels in India are amongst the highest in the world, the link between exposure to air pollution and social disadvantages has not been systematically examined. Using a distributive environmental justice framework, this study connects fine particulate matter (PM2.5) concentration data derived from satellite observations, a global chemical transport model, and ground-based measurements to district level socio-demographic information from the 2011 Census of India. The research objectives are to determine if annual average PM2.5 concentrations (2010) and recent increases in average PM2.5 concentrations (2010-2016) are unequally distributed with respect to socially disadvantaged population and household groups, after controlling for relevant contextual factors and spatial clustering. Overall, more than 85% of people and households in India reside in districts where international air quality standards for PM2.5 are exceeded. Although PM2.5 concentration levels are significantly higher in more urbanized districts located predominantly in northern India, recent increases have occurred in less urbanized areas located mainly in southern and central India. Multivariable statistical analysis indicated: (1) higher PM2.5 concentration in districts with higher percentages of Scheduled Castes (SCs), young children, and households in poor condition residence and without toilets; and (2) higher PM2.5 increases in less urbanized districts with higher percentages of SCs, females, children, people with disabilities, and households with no toilets. These findings thus highlight the need to consider the role of air pollution in exacerbating the consequences of social disadvantages in India.