Prospective usage of magnesium potassium phosphate cement combined with Bougainvillea alba derived biochar to reduce Pb bioavailability in soil and its uptake by Spinacia oleracea L.

Combining biochar (BR) with other immobilizing amendments has additive effects on Pb immobilization and been recognized to be effective for the restoration of Pb polluted soils. However, the impacts of different proportions between BR and a highly efficient Pb immobilizing agent called "magnesium potassium phosphate cement (MC)" have never been earlier investigated. This work aimed to investigate the consequences of BR and MC alone and their mixtures of 25:75, 50:50, and 75:25 ratios on Pb bioavailability, Pb immobilization index (Pb-IMMi), and enzymatic activities in Pb polluted soil. Furthermore, amendments effects on Pb distribution in spinach, growth, antioxidant capacity, biochemical, and nutritional spectrum were also investigated. We found that MC alone performed well to immobilize Pb in soil and reducing its distribution in shoots, but was less efficient to improve soil enzymatic activities and plant attributes. Conversely, the application of BR alone stimulated soil enzymatic activities, plant growth, and quality but was less effective to immobilize Pb in soil and reducing shoot Pb concentrations. The combinations of BR and MC of various ratios showed variable results. Interestingly, the most promising outcomes were obtained with BR50%+MC50% treatment which resulted in enhanced Pb-IMMi (73%), activities of soil enzymes, plant growth and quality, and antioxidant capacity, compared to control. Likewise, significant reductions in Pb concentrations in shoots (85%), roots (78%), extractable Pb (73%) were also obtained with BR50%+MC50% treatment, compared to control. Such outcomes point towards a cost-effective approach for reducing Pb uptake by the plants via using MC and BR at a 50:50 ratio.