Blocked Lysine in Dairy Products: Formation, Occurrence, Analysis, and Nutritional Implications.

Lysine residues in milk proteins become "blocked" when they react with reducing sugars, particularly lactose, in the Maillard reaction. The blocked or glycated lysines reduce the biological availability of the lysine to metabolic processes and also hinder hydrolysis of the parent protein by digestive enzymes. Heating and storage of milk and milk products are the major promotants of the Maillard reaction and resulting chemical damage to the proteins. Several methods have been proposed to estimate the extent of this protein damage. Two major compounds, furosine, a product of acid hydrolysis of lactulosyl-lysine, the 1st stable product of the Maillard reaction, and carboxymethyl-lysine are used for assessing the early and advanced stages of the Maillard reaction, respectively. In addition, several methods are used for assessing the bioavailability of lysine in a protein; these include chemical, enzymic, and animal-based methods. This review discusses the Maillard reaction and its significance in milk and dairy products, methods of assessing the extent of the reaction and of the bioavailability of lysine, and the nutritional significance of blocked lysines and associated Maillard reaction products in milk proteins.