Double Emulsions Relevant to Food Systems: Preparation, Stability, and Applications.

This review describes advances in the preparation of food-relevant double emulsions (DEs) of the water-in-oil-in-water (W/O/W) and oil-in-water-in-oil (O/W/O) types with emphasis on research published within the last decade. The information is assembled and critically evaluated according to the following aspects: the food application area, the range of encapsulated components and emulsion composition, the emulsification preparation methods, the balancing of the osmotic pressure, the stabilization by increased viscosity or gelation, the role of protein-polysaccharide interactions, and the techniques used to estimate DE yield and emulsification efficiency. Particular focus is directed toward the control of encapsulation and release behavior, including strategies that have been employed to improve the retention ability of the inner phase droplets by modifying the outer oil-water interface through mixed ingredient interactions, Pickering stabilization by particles, and biopolymer gelation. We also briefly consider the incorporation of DEs into dried microcapsules and the stability of W/O/W emulsions during eating and digestion. It would appear that 2 outstanding issues are currently preventing full realization of the potential of DEs in food applications: (i) the lack of availability of large-scale production equipment to ensure efficient nondestructive 2nd-stage emulsification, and (ii) the limited range of food-grade ingredients available to successfully replace polyglycerol polyricinoleate as the primary emulsifier in W/O/W formulations.