Andrew S Tungate1, Frances A Conners2. 1. The University of Alabama, Department of Psychology, Box 870348, Tuscaloosa, AL, 35487-0348, USA. Electronic address: atungate@crimson.ua.edu. 2. The University of Alabama, Department of Psychology, Box 870348, Tuscaloosa, AL, 35487-0348, USA.
Abstract
BACKGROUND: Executive function (EF) refers to a set of cognitive processes involved in goal-oriented behavior-especially inhibition, attention shifting, and working memory. EF has been identified as a probable area of difficulty in Down syndrome (DS), but the exact nature of the difficulty has not been well-established. AIMS: The meta-analysis sought to confirm or disconfirm EF as an area of difficulty in DS and elucidate an EF profile. METHODS AND PROCEDURES: A random-effects meta-analysis was conducted on 57 studies that compared a group with DS to a typically developing (TD) mental age matched group on one or more executive function tasks. Heterogeneity was examined and moderators analyzed. OUTCOMES AND RESULTS: The overall mean weighted effect size was large (d = -0.87), indicating poorer EF in groups with DS vs TD groups. Heterogeneity was significant, and moderator analysis revealed an EF profile with a very large effect for verbal WM/STM, a large effect for shifting, and moderate effects for inhibition and nonverbal WM/STM. Skewness analysis suggested that mean effect sizes might have been dampened, especially for WM/STM and shifting. CONCLUSIONS AND IMPLICATIONS: Individuals with DS display a pronounced difficulty in EFs; implications for interventions and future research are discussed.
BACKGROUND: Executive function (EF) refers to a set of cognitive processes involved in goal-oriented behavior-especially inhibition, attention shifting, and working memory. EF has been identified as a probable area of difficulty in Down syndrome (DS), but the exact nature of the difficulty has not been well-established. AIMS: The meta-analysis sought to confirm or disconfirm EF as an area of difficulty in DS and elucidate an EF profile. METHODS AND PROCEDURES: A random-effects meta-analysis was conducted on 57 studies that compared a group with DS to a typically developing (TD) mental age matched group on one or more executive function tasks. Heterogeneity was examined and moderators analyzed. OUTCOMES AND RESULTS: The overall mean weighted effect size was large (d = -0.87), indicating poorer EF in groups with DS vs TD groups. Heterogeneity was significant, and moderator analysis revealed an EF profile with a very large effect for verbal WM/STM, a large effect for shifting, and moderate effects for inhibition and nonverbal WM/STM. Skewness analysis suggested that mean effect sizes might have been dampened, especially for WM/STM and shifting. CONCLUSIONS AND IMPLICATIONS: Individuals with DS display a pronounced difficulty in EFs; implications for interventions and future research are discussed.
Authors: Mario Fernando Jojoa-Acosta; Sara Signo-Miguel; Maria Begoña Garcia-Zapirain; Mercè Gimeno-Santos; Amaia Méndez-Zorrilla; Chandan J Vaidya; Marta Molins-Sauri; Myriam Guerra-Balic; Olga Bruna-Rabassa Journal: Int J Environ Res Public Health Date: 2021-10-14 Impact factor: 3.390