Reasons why older adults play sport: A systematic review.

BACKGROUND: Despite the known contribution of sport to health and well-being, sport participation declines in older age. However, for some people, sport continues to play an important role in older age and may contribute to improved health and well-being in older years. Although the health-related benefits of participating in sport are commonly reported, the reasons why some older adults continue to play sport are not well understood. This systematic review aimed to (1) identify studies from the literature that evaluated the reasons why older adults (aged 55 years and older) participate in sport and (2) synthesize and discuss the reasons for their participation reported in the literature.
METHODS: Searches of the electronic databases Embase, Medline, PsycInfo, PubMed, and SPORTDiscus were performed. Studies were included that evaluated reasons for sport participation in adults aged 55 years and older because this is the age at which sport participation has been reported to begin declining. The studies included in this review used qualitative, quantitative, or mixed methods designs, were peer reviewed, and were published in the English language before the search date (20 January 2019).
RESULTS: A total of 1732 studies were identified. After exclusions, 30 studies were included in the review (16 qualitative, 10 quantitative, and 4 mixed methods). The review presents several features and findings from the studies, including a description and systematization of the reasons for participating in sport and the main reasons that participants gave for participating in sport (maintaining health, feeling and being part of a community, and taking advantage of opportunities to develop relationships). Other reasons included competing and attaining a feeling of achievement, taking advantage of opportunities for travel, and being part of a team. Sport was identified as contributing to the overall experience of successful ageing. There were few comparative differences for participating in sport, and there were only small differences between genders for the reasons given for participation. Generally, the quality of the studies was good; however, mixed methods studies lacked appropriate data analysis procedures.
CONCLUSION: Older adults play sport for a range of health-related and social reasons that can contribute to the experience of successful ageing. Strategies to increase sport participation by older adults should focus on promoting these aspects.

Introduction

Public health policy has maintained a focus on engaging older people in successful ageing, with a significant emphasis on being as physically active as possible in older age. Older adults are the most sedentary sector of the population, and even small increases in physical activity (PA) for those who are least active can provide significant benefits for health and well-being., Improvements in PA are associated with reduced all-cause mortality and can help to reduce the risk of cardiovascular disease, diabetes, bone disease, mental ill-health, and cognitive decline.3, 4, 5 Because population health is expected to decline over the coming decades as our population ages, being as physically active as possible into older age will become increasingly important for maintaining population health and well-being.

Given the clear evidence of the health benefits gained from engaging in exercise, most health organizations around the world have guidelines recommending engagement in PA. This includes the World Health Organisation, which recommends that older adults engage in 150 min of moderate-intensity PA per week or, when health conditions impact a person's ability to be physically active, to be as active as one's abilities and health allow.

One way that older people can maintain a healthy level of PA is by playing physically appropriate sport. Sports such as golf, croquet, bowls, and swimming are perhaps less physically demanding and, therefore, may be better matched to the physical capacity of many older adults. However, despite many people being actively involved in sport throughout their younger years, most do not continue to play sport as they age. In Australia, rates of participation in sport are estimated to peak in teenagers (∼56% play some sport), but this decreases to less than 10% for those aged more than 65 years., As people age, reduced sport participation is largely related to poor health or injury, and, to a lesser extent, other time commitments.,,

Sport is a form of PA that can be undertaken as part of a team or group, or undertaken individually. Sport requires participants to adhere to a set of rules, expectations, or behaviors; has a defined goal; and usually requires regular engagement and training. In these ways, sport differs from exercise and PA more generally in that exercise and PA do not have defined goals, rules, or expectations. However, most sports involve a component of PA and, therefore, provide a means by which participants can be physically active. Many people choose to do a combination of both sport and PA or exercise—for example, training for an upcoming marathon by undertaking a general activity such as running. Although there is sure to be debate as to the merit of these activities from a sporting perspective, it can be argued that gym and fitness activities are fundamentally different from sport, and participants who engage in these activities may, therefore, have different reasons for doing so and may derive different benefits.

In a recent systematic review, the important role that sport can play as a contributor to the health and well-being of nations at a population level was identified. However, despite such evidence, there has been a continued decline in sport participation in recent decades,, particularly among older people. To this end, governments have recognized the need to invest in providing opportunities for people to engage in PA, and, by extension, sport. The concept of sport and exercise as medicine, as well as a preventative strategy for reducing disease risk, now forms the basis of many global public health initiatives.

Much previous work evaluating the benefits of sport participation has focused on children and younger adults. Although there has been an increase in interest in the health-related benefits of sport for older athletes in recent years, the literature in the area is still developing. Much of the work related to older athletes has focused on athletes who participate in the Masters Games,15, 16, 17, 18 and, to a lesser extent, on athletes who participate in other sports such as volleyball, general sport, and golf. Previous reviews have examined determinants and trends in sport participation among older adults, but most have focused on the benefits of sport participation in older age, rather than on the reasons for participation. Understanding the reasons why older adults play sport may help to inform strategies that will increase participation, thus providing opportunities for a greater number of older adults to obtain the benefits of participating in sport. Therefore, the aim of the present review was to address this specific gap in the literature by systematically reviewing the extent, range, and nature of the literature related to the reasons why older adults participate in sport.

Methods

Search strategy

Our systematic review addressing the question of why older people play sport was conducted in accordance with Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses (PRISMA) guidelines.

The following electronic databases were searched: Embase, MEDLINE, PsycInfo, PubMed, and SPORTDiscus. The search terms used were “older adults OR older OR aging OR masters OR seniors” AND “sport OR sport participation” AND “reasons OR motivation OR motivate OR factors”, with the truncation symbol (*) used where appropriate to ensure all deviations of the search terms were captured in the search. The Boolean search terms AND and OR were used throughout the search process. The English language filter was applied, and the full database searches were conducted between 20 January 2019 and 22 January 2019, with no time or date limitations applied.

Search process

The search was conducted by 1 researcher (BJS), and all identified studies were imported into Endnote reference management software (Version X7.5.3; Thomson Reuters, Philadelphia, PA, USA). Following removal of duplicates, the file was exported into an online systematic review platform, Covidence© (www.covidence.org), for screening and review. Titles and abstracts were screened by 2 researchers (BJS and either JDB or ADM) to determine eligibility. Eligible and included articles where then subject to full text reviews by 2 researchers (BJS and a research assistant), at which time reference lists were pearled for additional relevant studies. Any discrepancies between reviewers were resolved through discussion, and, if needed, an independent researcher (ADM) cast a deciding vote. Fig. 1 provides full details of this process.

Fig. 1

Reference screening and selection. PA = physical activity; SR = systematic review.

Selection criteria

Articles were included if they were published in English language in a peer-reviewed journal and reported specific data on the reasons for sport participation for adults 55 years of age or older. The current review used the age of 55 years because this corresponds with documented significant changes in participation rates in many popular sports.8, 9, 10 Sport was defined, per the definition of Khan et al., as “a subset of exercise, undertaken individually or as part of a team. Participants adhere to a common set of rules and there is a defined goal” (p. 59). It was also defined according to a list of sports specified by the Australian Sports Directory (www.sportaus.gov.au/Australian_sports_directory).

Data extraction

Data extraction tables were developed to record relevant data from included studies. Data related to the following categories were extracted: authors, year of publication, country of origin, study aim, population (age, sample size, and other characteristics), sport evaluated, study methodology, and outcomes reported. Two reviewers (BJS and a research assistant) participated in the data extraction process. Any errors or inconsistencies were resolved by a third person (ADM). Data extracted are presented in Table 1.

Table 1

Study characteristics.

Study	Year	Author(s)	Method	Design	Sample (n) and ethnicity	Age (year) and gender	Country	Specified aim	Sport	Reasons for participation	Commentary on findings
1	2016	Appleby & Dieffenbach37	Qualitative	Descriptive/in-depth interviews	n = 3; Ethnicity unknown	Age range: 55–74; gender for age range unknown	USA	Investigate elite masters cyclists' involvement in competitive sport.	Cycling	Being part of communityCompetitionRelationships with family and othersBeing part of a teamContributes to successful ageing	–
2	2015	Bendikova & Bartik38	Mixed	Not specified	n = 172 (86 pairs); Slovakian	Mean age = 66.2	Slovakia	Widen the knowledge concerning active lifestyle of seniors by means of sports activities.	Mixed, including cycling, swimming, table tennis, and others	Being part of communityRelationships with othersAchieving goals	Difference based on gender; men ranked pleasure, friendship, and health higher; women ranked social contact, health improvement, and feeling good higher
3	2018	Berlin et al.39	Mixed	Quantitative descriptive and qualitative interviewing using “laddering”	Quantitative n = 256, Qualitative n = 79;Researchers and participants USA based, but no comment on ethnicity	Age = 70.1 ± 7.4 (mean ± SD); all female	USA	The purpose was to focus solely on active older women (defined here as ≥60 years) to determine to what extent these women, who engage in either sports-based physical activities (specifically, bowling and golfing) or exercise-based activities (swimming and walking), differ in subjective ratings of successful ageing and whether there were differences in the predictors of successful ageing across the activity groups.	Bowling n = 65, golf n = 59 (swimming included as PA in this study, as comparator group)	Health benefitsBeing part of communityCompetitionRelationshipsContributes to successful ageing	–
4	2014	Berlin & Klenosky40	Qualitative	Semistructured interview using means-end approach	n = 79; Ethnicity unknown, reported 95% as “white”	Age range: 60–92,golfers: 74.0 ± 9.1, bowlers: 71.2 ± 7.0 (mean ± SD)	USA	The specific focus will be to identify the range of meanings, and the interconnections among these meanings, that derive from continued participation in these activities.	Bowlers n = 17, golfers n = 21	Overall healthBeing part of communityCompetitionTravelRelationshipsContributes to successful ageing	Difference between golfers and bowlers presented as a “summary of ladders and attributes”Staying active, meeting people, challenge, and other consistent across sportsOnly difference was golf being played outdoors
5	1990	Brodkin & Weiss41	Quantitative	Quantitative descriptive using Participation Motivation Questionnaire	n = 100No comment on ethnicity	27 may have been aged 55–74, although this number also includes 40–54; exact gender ratio unable to be determined	USA	Different age levels would have different motivational factors related to competitive swimming.	Swimming	Physical healthRelationshipsContributes to successful ageing	—
6	2009	Cardenas et al.42	Quantitative	Quantitative descriptive using reasons for participating scale	n = 438, 81% “white”, 10% African American, 5% American Indian, 4% Ethnicity unknown	Mean age = 70, age range: 55–96; 52% female, 48% male	USA	Explore reasons for participation in Northern Carolina Seniors Games.	Not specified; all were Masters Games participants	Physical healthCompetitionRelationships	Differences based on gender–women rated interpersonal relationships higher than men, and games allowed a physical and social opportunityNo differences regarding race/ethnicity
7	2016	Cheng et al.43	Qualitative	Semistructured interviews	n = 15	Mean age = 63, age range: 54–83; all male	Taiwan, China	The purpose of this study was to explore the concept of serious leisure in the context of older rugby players.	Rugby Union	Physical and mental healthPart of communityCompetitionRelationshipsBeing part of a team	–
8	2012	Cheung et al.44	Quantitative	Quantitative descriptive using Participation Motivation Inventory	n = 50	Aged ≥50; no data on gender split for this age group	Hong Kong, China	Investigate motivational determinants of participants in the Hong Kong Masters Games.	Tennis, orienteering, running, swimming, badminton, squash, lawn bowls, and gate ball	Health benefitsPart of communityCompetitionRelationshipsBeing part of a team	No significant difference for gender
9	2002a	Dionigi45	Qualitative	Exploratory inquiry, inductive process within an interpretive paradigm,semistructured interviews	n = 100, mainly white and middle class	Age ranged: 55–94, only 9 aged ≥80 years;50% male/female	Australia	Investigate the experience of older adults in competitive sport.	Running, race walking, triathlon, cycling, track and field, archery, canoeing, swimming, gymnastics, sport aerobics, indoor rowing, netball, tennis, baseball, ice hockey, squash, soccer, badminton, field hockey, softball, cricket, basketball, and touch football	Physical healthPart of communityCompetitionContribute to successful ageingSense of achievement	–
10	2013	Dionigi et al.46	Qualitative	Qualitative, semistructured interviews	n = 44	Age range: 56–90, mean age = 72; 23 females, 21 males	Australia, participants from Australia, Canada, USA, and New Zealand	Understand how masters athletes account for their performance preservation in sport.	Swimming, athletics/track and field, squash, orienteering, weightlifting, tennis, badminton, and cycling	Physical healthCompetitionContribution to successful ageing	–
11	2002b	Dionigi32	Qualitative	Qualitative, semistructured interviews	n = 100, mainly “white” and middle class	Age ranged: 55–94, only 9 aged ≥8050% male/female	Australia and New Zealand	Contribute to understanding of identity management, leisure and later life experiences of older adults who play competitive sport.	Running, race walking, triathlon, cycling, track and field, archery, canoeing, swimming, gymnastics, sport aerobics, indoor rowing, netball, tennis, baseball, ice hockey, squash, soccer, badminton, field hockey, softball, cricket, basketball, and touch football	Health benefitsPart of communityCompetitionTravelRelationshipsContribution to successful ageingAchievement	–
12	2011	Dionigi et al. 16	Qualitative	Qualitative, semistructured interviews	n = 44	Age ranged 56–90, mean age = 72; 23 females, 21 males	Australia, participants from Australia, Canada, USA, and New Zealand	Determine what a group of Masters Games participants gained from competing and describe psychosocial processes that underpin continued involvement in competitive sport.	Swimming, athletics/track and field, squash, orienteering, weightlifting, tennis, badminton, and cycling	Part of communityCompetitionTravelRelationship	–
13	2014	Ferrand et al.47	Quantitative	Survey using SMS	n = 100, French	Age = 75.34 ± 4.89 (mean ± SD)57 females, 43 males	France	Better understand motivation used by adults for exercise/sport and how this links to health-related quality of life.	Gymnastics, swimming, golf, archery or endurance activities such as skiing, cross-country walking, and cycling	Achievement	–
14	2012	Hall & Ferreira48	Quantitative	Quantitative descriptive	n = 104, 94% Caucasian, 6% Ethnicity unknown	Age range: 50–85, mean (SD) not provided	USA	What were the determinants that drove participants in an event to make a choice among competing Senior Games?	Track and field, swimming, horseshoes, cycling, volleyball, basketball, bowling, golf, bridge, and triathlon	Part of communityCompetitionTravel	–
15	2009	Hamm-Kerwin et al.49	Qualitative	Qualitative, semistructured interviews	n = 20	Age = 72 ± 5.6 (mean ± SD)75% male	Canada	Explore common factors associated with being a volunteer in sport.	Not described	General healthPart of communityRelationships	–
16	2013	Heo et al.50	Qualitative	Qualitative, in-depth interviews	n = 10 (9 white and 1 African American)	Mean age = 63, age range: 52–716 males and 4 females	USA	How did competing in Senior Games contribute to successful ageing of older adults.	Tennis, volleyball, track and field, cycling, swimming, shuffleboard, table tennis, and race walking	Part of communityCompetitionRelationshipsBeing part of a teamContributes to successful ageing	–
17	2005	Heuser51	Qualitative	Qualitative, in-depth interviews	n = 18, Australian	Age range: 64–88; all female	Australia	Understand the development of a career in lawn bowls.	Lawn bowls	Health benefitsPart of communityCompetitionRelationshipsContributes to successful ageing	–
18	2016	Jenkin et al.7	Qualitative	Focus groups	8 focus groups, total of 49 participantsAustralian	Sport club member interviews: mean age = 62, age range: 50–85; 50/50 gender split	Australia	Explore benefits of older adults’ participation for sporting organizations.	Tennis and cricket	Part of communityRelationships with family and friends	–
19	2013	Kirby & Kluge19	Qualitative	Intrinsic case study, using focus group and individual interviews	n = 8	Age range: 65–76; all female	Canada	Explore the formation of a women's ≥65 volleyball team and understand what it is like for older women to learn a new sport and participate in competition.	Volleyball	Part of communityCompetitionRelationshipsBeing part of a teamContributes to successful ageingAchievement	–
20	2004	Kolt et al.20	Quantitative	Quantitative descriptive using PMQOA	n = 815	Age = 63.6 ± 7.8 (mean ± SD), age range: 55–93 years;399 males and 416 females	Australia	To identify the participation motives of older Australians involved in regular exercise and sport.	Golf, lawn bowls, tennis, and swimming	Health and fitnessPart of communityRelationshipsBeing part of a teamContributes to successful ageingAchievement and challenge	Women rated social involvement and medical reasons as more important
21	2013	Medic et al.52	Quantitative	Quantitative descriptive exploratory	n = 338Ethnicity not provided	Age = 55.3 ± 11.8 (mean ± SD);n = 338, 154 males vs. 184 females(n = 157 aged 55–74, no gender split was available)	Australia	Examine the contrasting perceptions of Masters swimmers in a 5-year age category.	Swimming	Physical health and fitnessCompetition	–
22	2017	Naar et al.53	Qualitative	Interpretivist qualitative approach, using focus groups	n = 64 (40 white)	Mean age = 69.3, age range: 55–79; all female	USA	Identify factors that influence older women's participation in competitive softball.	Softball	Physical healthPart of communityCompetitionRelationshipsBeing part of a teamContributes to successful ageingChallenging age-related stereotypes	–
23	1998	Newton & Fry54	Quantitative	Quantitative descriptive	n = 137,93% Caucasian, 7% Ethnicity unknown	Age = 64.5 ± 7.8 (mean ± SD), age range: 49–83;54 males, 82 females	USA	Examine the motivational perspectives of athletes participating in the Senior Olympic Games.	Including, but not limited to, tennis, track and field, and bowlingOthers were not specified	Physical health and fitnessMental healthPart of communityCompetitionRelationshipsContributes to successful ageing	–
24	2017	Park55	Mixed	Semistructured interviews and short survey	n = 18, Korean	Mean age = 73, age range: 68–79;all female	Korea	Describe the experience of sport stacking as applied to Korean older adults.	Sport stacking	Health benefitsPart of communityRelationshipsContributes to successful ageing	–
25	2017	Pedersen et al.56	Mixed	RCT with qualitative interview component	n = 72, Danish	25 males, aged 79 ± 5; 47 females, aged 80 ± 7 (mean ± SD)	Denmark	To determine the effect of training organized as a small-sided team sport and resistance training on motivation of older untrained adults.	Football (soccer) and resistance training	Part of communityRelationshipsBeing part of a team	–
26	2009	Pero et al.57	Quantitative	Quantitative descriptive using SMS, grounded in SDT	n = 430, Italian	Age range: 45–55, n = 229; age range: 56– 65, n = 114; aged >65, n = 87;348 males, 82 females	Italy	To determine motivation for participation in sport for older Italians and to determine whether there was any difference in reasons for gender or age.	Swimming and track and field	Health benefitsRelationshipsAchievement	No gender difference
27	2012	Pike58	Qualitative	Semistructured interviews and participant observations	n = 31Ethnicity not reported	18 males and 13 females;mean age = 65	UK	Drawing on the stories of Masters swimmers (aged ≥60), identify the enablers and constrainers to participation in sports-level swimming.	Swimming	Health benefitsPart of communityRelationshipsContributes to successful ageingStructure and routine	–
28	2007	Reed & Cox18	Quantitative	Quantitative using SMS and Motivation for Physical Activities Measure	n = 446Ethnicity not reported	Mean age = 61.58, age range 50–92;337 males, 109 females;age not available for each group	USA	Study the relationship between motivational regulation and reasons for participating in sport in older/senior athletes.	Individual sports not specifiedOnly Masters Games	Physical healthPart of communityCompetitionRelationships	Social interaction and enjoyment more important for women than they are for menAs age advanced, social interaction became more important for women and decreased for men
29	2016	Stenner et al.59	Qualitative	Focus groupsQualitative descriptive	n = 31Ethnicity not reported	Age = 66.8 ± 5.4; 12 males, age = 68.2 ± 7.5; 19 females, age = 66.0 ± 3.5 (mean ± SD)	Australia	Explore the reasons why older adults participate in golf and the benefits they perceive that they obtain from doing so.	Golf	Health benefitsPart of communityCompetitionTravelRelationshipsContributes to successful ageingRoutine and structure	–
30	2016	Yamada & Heo60	Qualitative	Qualitative in-depth interviews	n = 10 (9 Caucasian and 1 African American)	6 males and 4 females;age range: 52–71 with average of 63	USA	Explore determinants and considerations of older adults in regard to their engagement in the Senior Games.	Track and field, cycling, swimming, shuffle board, race walking, volleyball, and table tennis	Health benefitsPart of communityCompetitionTravelRelationshipsContributes to successful ageing	–

a, b Denote mulitiple publications in the same year by the same authors.

Abbreviations: PA = physical activity; PMQOA = participation motivation questionnaire for older adults; RCT = randomized control trial; SDT = self determination theory; SMS = sports motivation scale.

Review of quality

An overall appraisal of study quality was conducted using the Mixed Methods Appraisal Tool (MMAT) and associated user guide., The MMAT is specifically designed for the appraisal of systematic reviews that include qualitative, quantitative, and mixed methods studies. The MMAT initially applies 2 broad evaluations: (1) Are the research questions clear? and (2) Do the collected data address the research questions posed? If a study scored “yes” on these 2 criteria, which all studies in the current review did, the MMAT further reviews methodologic quality using questions relevant to the study design. Each question was answered using either yes, no, or can't tell. An overall score was not calculated as this is not the intended purpose for the use of the MMAT. The quality rating for each criterion for each study is provided in Table 2.

Table 2

Assessment of quality using the mixed methods appraisal tool.

Study	Year	Author(s)	Screening S1	Screening S2	1.1	1.2	1.3	1.4	1.5	4.1	4.2	4.3	4.4	4.5	5.1	5.2	5.3	5.4	5.5
1	2016	Appleby & Dieffenbach37	Y	Y	Y	Y	Y	Y	Y
2	2015	Bendikova & Bartik38	Y	Y											N	N	N	N	N
3	2018	Berlin et al.39	Y	Y											Y	Y	Y	Y	Y
4	2014	Berlin & Klenosky40	Y	Y	Y	Y	Y	Y	Y
5	1990	Brodkin & Weiss41	Y	Y						Can't tell	Can't tell	Y	Can't tell	Y
6	2009	Cardenas et al.42	Y	Y						Y	Y	Y	Y	Y
7	2016	Cheng et al.43	Y	Y	Y	Y	Y	Y	Y
8	2012	Cheung et al.44	Y	Y						N	N	Y	Can't tell	Y
9	2002a	Dionigi45	Y	Y	Y	Y	Y	Y	Y
10	2013	Dionigi et al.46	Y	Y	Y	Y	Y	Y	Y
11	2002b	Dionigi32	Y	Y	Y	Y	Y	Y	Y
12	2011	Dionigi et al.16	Y	Y	Y	Y	Y	Y	Y
13	2014	Ferrand et al.47	Y	Y						Y	Y	Y	Y	Y
14	2012	Hall & Ferreira48	Y	Y						Y	Y	Y	Y	Y
15	2009	Hamm-Kerwin et al.49	Y	Y	Y	Y	Y	Y	Y
16	2013	Heo et al.50	Y	Y	Y	Y	Y	Y	Y
17	2005	Heuser51	Y	Y	Y	Y	Y	Y	Y
18	2016	Jenkin et al7	Y	Y	Y	Y	Y	Y	Y
19	2013	Kirby & Kluge19	Y	Y	Y	Y	Y	Y	Y
20	2004	Kolt et al.20	Y	Y						Y	Y	Y	Y	Y
21	2013	Medic et al.52	Y	Y						Y	Y	Y	Y	Y
22	2017	Naar et al.53	Y	Y	Y	Y	Y	Y	Y
23	1998	Newton & Fry54	Y	Y						Y	Y	Y	Y	Y
24	2017	Park55	Y	Y											Y	Y	Y	n	Y
25	2017	Pedersen et al.56	Y	Y											Y	Y	Y	Y	Y
26	2009	Pero et al. 57	Y	Y						Y	Y	Y	Y	Y
27	2012	Pike58	Y	Y	Y	Y	Y	Y	Y
28	2007	Reed & Cox18	Y	Y						Y	Y	Y	Y	Y
29	2016	Stenner et al.59	Y	Y	Y	Y	Y	Y	Y
30	2016	Yamada & Heo60	Y	Y	Y	Y	Y	Y	Y

a, b Denote mulitiple publications in the same year by the same authors.

S1: Are the research questions clear? S2: Do the collected data allow the research questions to be addressed?

1. Qualitative: 1.1. Is the qualitative approach appropriate to answer the research question? 1.2. Are the qualitative data collection methods adequate to address the research question? 1.3. Are the findings adequately derived from the data? 1.4. Is the interpretation of results sufficiently substantiated by data? 1.5. Is there coherence between qualitative data sources, collection, analysis, and interpretation?

4. Quantitative descriptive: 4.1. Is the sampling strategy relevant to address the research question? 4.2. Is the sample representative of the target population? 4.3. Are the measurements appropriate? 4.4. Is the risk of nonresponse bias low? 4.5. Is the statistical analysis appropriate to answer the research question?

5. Mixed methods: 5.1. Is there an adequate rationale for using a mixed methods design to address the research question? 5.2. Are the different components of the study effectively integrated to answer the research question? 5.3. Are the outputs of the integration of qualitative and quantitative components adequately interpreted? 5.4. Are divergences and inconsistencies between quantitative and qualitative results adequately addressed? 5.5. Do the different components of the study adhere to the quality criteria of each tradition of the methods involved?

Abbreviations: N = no; Y = yes.

Results

In total, 1732 studies were initially identified. After exclusions, 30 studies were included in the final review. Details of the study review process can be found in Fig. 1. The 30 studies included a mix of qualitative, quantitative, and mixed methods research. Given this mix, meta-synthesis, and/or meta-analysis was not possible. Thus, a narrative synthesis was performed.

Descriptive analysis

Of the 30 studies identified for inclusion, 16 were qualitative, 10 were quantitative, and 4 used mixed methods. Of the 16 qualitative studies, most used semistructured and/or in-depth interviews (n = 12), with the other 4 using focus groups. Sample sizes within the qualitative studies ranged from n = 8 to n = 100, with a total sample of n = 705. Ethnicity of participants was infrequently reported; however, in the studies that did report it, “white” or “Caucasian” was most often reported, with some studies reporting ethnicity as African American, Taiwanese, or Korean. The majority of studies were undertaken in the United States (n = 11). Studies were also conducted in Australia (n = 6) and Canada (n = 2). Three studies contained a mixed group of participants from the United States, Australia, Canada, and New Zealand. One study was undertaken in each of the following cities and countries: Denmark; France; Hong Kong, China; Italy; Korea; Slovakia; Taiwan, China; and the UK.

Within the 10 quantitative studies, all were cross-sectional and used a variety of questionnaires, with the Sports Motivation Scale being used most frequently (n = 3). The sample sizes for the quantitative studies ranged from n = 50 to n = 815 (total n = 2958). Within the 4 mixed methods studies, sample sizes ranged from n = 18 to n = 335 (total n = 597).

Studies involving a mix of sports with participants in Masters/Seniors Games was featured heavily (n = 9), followed by studies involving a mix of sports with participants not competing in Masters/Seniors Games (n = 6). In other studies, bowling (n = 2), swimming (n = 3), and golf (n = 2) were featured as a sport. The remaining studies each involved a single sport, including cycling, rugby union, tennis, cricket, volleyball, softball, sport stacking, and football/soccer.

Description of the reasons for participation reported in the literature

Five main themes emerged from the studies in regard to why people participated in sport. These reasons were related to health, social groups/community, relationships, competition/achievement, and successful ageing.

Health factors

Health-related factors as reasons for participation in sport were featured prominently in the studies (n = 21), in that continuing to play sport provided participants with an opportunity to maintain their health and well-being (refer to Studies 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 15, 17, 20, 21, 22, 23, 24, 26, 27, 28, 29, and 30 in Table 1). There was little differentiation between physical, mental and cognitive health, with only a few studies specifically identifying mental health (refer to Studies 7, 23, 24, and 29 in Table 1), and cognitive health (Refer to Studies 24 and 29 in Table 1) individually. In general, participants in sports included in Masters/Seniors Games, such as track and field, swimming, cycling, volleyball, and gymnastics, reported being motivated to participate by health-related factors (refer to Studies 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 16, 21, 23, 26, 27, 28, and 30 in Table 1). Those participating in individual sports, such as cycling (refer to Study 1 in Table 1), bowling (refer to Studies 3, 4, 17, and 20 in Table 1) and golf (refer to Studies 3, 4, 20, and 29 in Table 1), also reported that health was an important, but not the main, determinant of ongoing participation (Table 1).

Social groups/community factors

The opportunity to be part of a community or social group was another significant factor identified as contributing to sport participation. In 24 of the 30 studies, participants identified socializing, community feeling, togetherness, and being part of a group as important motivators in participating in sport (refer to Studies 1, 2, 3, 4, 7, 8, 9, 11, 12, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18, 19, 20, 22, 23, 24, 25, 27, 28, 29, and 30 in Table 1). There was no real differentiation between team-based and individual-based sports, in that regardless of the sport, being part of a community and being involved in social activities either before, during, or after the event was important (Table 1).

Relationship factors

Developing new relationships and strengthening existing ones through participation in sport also emerged as a key theme. This factor was featured in 25 of the 30 studies (refer to Studies 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 11, 12, 15, 16, 17, 18, 19, 20, 22, 23, 24, 25, 26, 27, 28, 29, and 30 in Table 1). It was evident across all sports, regardless of whether the participants participated in multisport events or in individual sports.

Competition/achievement factors

Many of the studies (n = 20) featured the ability of participants to continue to compete as a frequent driver of participation in sport. Although most evident for participants in Masters/Seniors Games (refer to Studies in 6, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 14, 16, 23, 28, and 30 Table 1), this factor also seemed to be particularly relevant to those participating in cycling (refer to Study 1 in Table 1), swimming (refer to Study 21 in Table 1), golf (refer to Studies 3, 4, and 29 in Table 1), rugby union (refer to Study 7 in Table 1), bowling (refer to Study 17 in Table 1), softball (refer to Study 22 in Table 1), and volleyball (refer to Study 19 in Table 1). Competition was not limited to competing with others. A number of studies (n = 10) identified the importance of self-competition, self-improvement, and achievement of goals as drivers of participation in sport (refer to Studies 1, 2, 3, 9, 13, 16, 19, 20, 26, and 29 in Table 1).

Successful ageing factors

Successful ageing was also important to sport participants and was reported in 17 of the studies (refer to Studies 1, 3, 4, 5, 9, 10, 11, 16, 17, 19, 20, 22, 23, 24, 27, 29, and 30 in Table 1). Aspects of successful ageing that were evident within the literature were slowing the process of ageing, improving the experience of ageing, being engaged in sport despite getting older, helping to dispel social perceptions, and challenging stereotypes of being older.

Other less frequently reported reasons for participation included opportunities for travel (refer to Studies 4, 11, 12, 14, 29, and 30 in Table 1) and valuing being part of a team (refer to Studies 1, 7, 8, 16, 17, 19, 20, 22, 25, and 30 in Table 1).

Comparative differences among sports

Only a few studies explored the differences in reasons for participation by sport. Two Studies (Studies 3 and 4 in Table 1) compared the reasons for engaging in PA (i.e., noncompetitive swimming) with reasons for playing a different sport (i.e., bowling and golf). These studies reported that individuals who engaged in PA (i.e., noncompetitive swimming) did so because it was a means for improving their fitness and health, although those who engaged in other sports (golf and bowling) still valued the health benefits of participation but were also seeking social connections, support from others, achievement, and competition. There were no other comparative differences based on specific sports described in the literature.

Comparative differences between gender

A few studies explored the differences between genders in the reasons given for participation in sport (refer to Studies 2, 6, 8, 20, 26, and 28 in Table 1). In the studies that reported statistical differences by gender (refer to Studies 2, 6, 20, and 28 in Table 1), women valued social contact, health, well-being, and interpersonal relationships as more important than other factors, such as competition and achievement, which were more important to men. However, 2 studies found no difference in reasons for participation between genders (refer to Studies 8 and 26 in Table 1), and it was suggested that the lack of gender difference might be related to age and to longer term involvement in sport, with women who had participated in sport for a longer period of time sharing similar values to men (refer to Study 26 in Table 1). It should be noted, however, that the study by Cheung et al. (refer to Study 8 in Table 1) had a very small sample size (n = 50), and that details related to the statistical analysis of the data in this article were limited.

Quality of the studies

The ratings of quality, determined using the MMAT, are provided in Table 2. In general, the qualitative studies (n = 16) were of good quality, as were the quantitative studies (n = 10). Quality issues existed within 2 of the mixed methods studies, where 1 study (refer to Study 2 in Table 2) did not meet any of the quality criteria and the other study (refer to Study 3 in Table 2) did not discuss inconsistencies and differences between the qualitative and quantitative results. No other quality issues were noted.

Discussion

This systematic literature review explored the reasons why older adults participate in sport. In general, the included studies reported that older adults participated in sport to improve their health and well-being. However, sport participation also provided opportunities for having social interactions, being a part of a community, developing relationships, experiencing competition, achieving goals, and contributing to the overall sense of successful ageing.

The finding that health-related factors were an important consideration for why older adults participate in sport was consistent with an earlier review by Jenkin et al. In that review, older adults reported that participation in sport contributed to their health and well-being, and that this was one of the key benefits of ongoing participation. This finding was consistent with ours in that our study also identified health benefits as an important reason for participating in sport. Public health policy often promotes health benefits as an important part of exercise;,,, therefore, it is not surprising to see health as a key driver in sport participation among older adults. As people age, participation in sport declines, and this decreased participation may be driven largely by ill health or age-related declines in physical abilities. If sport is to continue to provide health-related benefits for older people, it must be adapted in order to engage an ageing population and to provide options for participation by older adults.

Of the 30 studies included in our review, 25 (83%) identified factors related to community and/or friendship as a motivating factor for continued participation in sport. The importance of this factor should not be underestimated, given the increased risk of isolation and loneliness that older people experience and the negative impact this can have on their experience of ageing.28, 29, 30 The majority of the studies in our review included participants from Masters/Seniors Games, with a relatively small number of studies related to team-based or community-based sports, which was consistent with the review by Jenkin et al. This in itself is interesting, because one might assume that participating in a team environment would be more likely to instill a feeling of being part of and contributing to community and friendships. However, the results of our review suggest that this is not the case, and, regardless of the sport played, being around others who also engage in that sport fosters a sense of community and encourages development and/or strengthening of friendships.

Competition as a source for motivation for sport participation by older age groups might be underestimated. Despite older people not being able to compete in sports in the same way they did when they were younger, the desire to challenge their own limits and abilities, set goals and achieve them, and be successful in their chosen sport at an appropriate level are key drivers of sport participation. This is perhaps in contrast to the stereotypical view of older people, who are often negatively perceived as slowing down, no longer being physically able, and not being driven or motivated to succeed.31, 32, 33 Our review found that, for those still participating in sport, competition and challenge are important, and that older people take pleasure in achieving goals that help break down age-related stereotypes. Sport provides an opportunity for some older people to actively seek out and engage in competition. Sport can a healthy and constructive part of the ageing process for those who choose to participate.

The contribution of sport to the experience of successful ageing is evident from the data gathered in our review. Successful ageing has been defined as “multidimensional, encompassing the avoidance of disease and disability, the maintenance of high physical and cognitive function, and sustained engagement in social and productive activities”. More recently, the definition has been expanded to include emotional health and well-being. Although 17 of the studies specifically mentioned successful ageing as a motivation for sport participation, all 30 studies in our review reported reasons for participation in sport that directly contribute to the experience of successful ageing. Sport plays an important role in promoting successful ageing for older people because it contributes to the multifaceted nature of successful ageing as currently defined.

The quality of the studies included in this review was, in general, high. Most studies met the MMAT criteria for high quality. However, there were a small number of studies that did not meet the criteria, particularly those that used mixed methods, and it is important for future research using mixed methods to ensure that the methodology clearly uses and articulates the research process and uses data available from both study types (i.e., qualitative and quantitative) to better answer the research questions. The data obtained through the mixed methods studies included in our review may not be as useful as it could be due to methodologic flaws.

Gaps identified by the review

The focus of much research has been on Masters/Seniors Games, which typically involve athletic events such as track and field, swimming, and cycling. This is interesting given the differing popularity of sports, both within Australia and around the world. Generally, the top 5 sports for older people, ranked by participation rates, include golf, tennis, bowls, track and field, and swimming. It is not clear why the most popular sports have not been researched more extensively. This perhaps is due to pragmatic decisions around recruiting participants for research, in that Masters/Seniors Games attract a relatively large number of people in the same location at the same time, facilitating recruitment for studies. However, research involving participants in the more popular sports of golf, tennis, and bowling would potentially contribute to a much richer and broader understanding of motivations for participation in sport and could be conducted by using online methods to engage participants without the need to recruit participants from large gatherings of people at sporting events.

The studies included in our review typically involved participants from higher income countries such as Australia, the United States, and Canada, where participation in organized sport is generally more affordable to the residents of those countries. However, given the popularity of sport worldwide, participants from lower income countries and different ethnic or cultural backgrounds should be included in future studies to broaden the understanding of sports participation throughout the world.

There is also a wide difference in participation rates based on gender, with men typically playing more sport for a longer period of time than women. Despite the large difference in participation rates and the types of sport played, there are relatively few studies that explore gender differences in sports participation and attempt to describe the motivational factors that might explain this difference. Differences are typically found in relation to the importance of social and relationship factors, which are of greater importance to women, whereas men report that health and competition factors are, in general, more important to them., Our review identified a significant gap in the literature in accounting for reasons for differences in sports participation as it relates to gender. The difference in sport participation rates between the sexes has in some way influenced policy change in that in recent times there has been a larger focus, and greater investment made, in encouraging more women to play sport, with some, but limited, success. However, given the relative lack of research investigating gender differences in reasons for sport participation, there are 3 questions related to the strategies used. First, given the relative lack of quality data exploring these gender differences, have the most appropriate messages been used when promoting sport? Second, have different messages been used to recruit men and women participants? Third, have these recruitment messages been successful? These questions could form the basis of future research in this area.

Limitations of this review

The search strategy used for this review was robust, and both the study selection and data extraction process was rigorous. However, it is important to acknowledge that this review only contained studies that were found using the stated strategy. The review did not include studies that were written in languages other than English and it did not contain grey literature, unpublished works contained in theses or dissertations, or other material. The use of the MMAT allowed for all studies to be evaluated using the same tool; however, this tool does not support the use of a scoring system. Therefore, a quality score, and a comparison between studies based on this score, was not possible. Despite the lack of an overall score, the studies individually are of good quality; therefore, data contained in this review can be used with confidence.

Conclusion

This review found that health-related factors were significant motivators for sport participation, as were factors related to community, friendship, competition, and the overall experience of successful ageing. This information can be used to inform strategies to increase sport participation by older adults, thus encouraging a larger proportion of the population to take advantage of the benefits that can be obtained by participating in sport in older age.