Kentaro Murakami1, Nana Shinozaki1, M Barbara E Livingstone2, Aya Fujiwara1,3, Keiko Asakura4, Shizuko Masayasu5, Satoshi Sasaki1. 1. Department of Social and Preventive Epidemiology, School of Public Health, University of Tokyo, Tokyo113-0033, Japan. 2. Nutrition Innovation Centre for Food and Health (NICHE), School of Biomedical Sciences, Ulster University, Coleraine, UK. 3. Department of Nutritional Epidemiology and Shokuiku, National Institute of Biomedical Innovation, Health and Nutrition, Tokyo, Japan. 4. School of Medicine, Toho University, Tokyo, Japan. 5. Ikurien-naka, Ibaraki, Japan.
Abstract
OBJECTIVE: To characterise different meal types by examining the contribution of specific meals to the total intakes and the nutritional quality of each meal. DESIGN: A cross-sectional analysis was conducted based on dietary data collected using 4-d dietary record. Diet quality was assessed by the Healthy Eating Index-2015 and Nutrient-Rich Food Index 9.3. SETTING: Japan. PARTICIPANTS: Adults aged 20-81 years (n 639). RESULTS: Diet quality was, on average, highest for dinner, followed, in order, by lunch, breakfast and snacks. Breakfast, lunch, dinner and snacks, on average, accounted for 21 %, 32 %, 40 % and 11 % of total energy intake, respectively. For many nutrients, the percentage contribution to total intake did not vary within each meal, broadly in line with that for energy: 18-24 % for breakfast, 26-35 % for lunch, 35-49 % for dinner and 4-15 % for snacks. However, intakes of many foods largely depended on one meal type. The foods mainly eaten at dinner were potatoes, pulses, total vegetables, fish, meat and alcoholic beverages (52-70 %), in contrast to noodles (58 %) at lunch and bread (71 %) and dairy products (50 %) at breakfast. The foods mainly eaten at snacks were confectioneries (79 %) and sugar-sweetened beverages (52 %). Conversely, rice and eggs were more evenly distributed across three main meals (19-41 % and 30-38 %, respectively), while fruit and non-energetic beverages were more evenly distributed across all meal types (17-30 % and 19-35 %, respectively). CONCLUSIONS: These findings provide the background information on each meal type in Japanese and may help inform the development of meal-based guidelines and public health messages.
OBJECTIVE: To characterise different meal types by examining the contribution of specific meals to the total intakes and the nutritional quality of each meal. DESIGN: A cross-sectional analysis was conducted based on dietary data collected using 4-d dietary record. Diet quality was assessed by the Healthy Eating Index-2015 and Nutrient-Rich Food Index 9.3. SETTING: Japan. PARTICIPANTS: Adults aged 20-81 years (n 639). RESULTS: Diet quality was, on average, highest for dinner, followed, in order, by lunch, breakfast and snacks. Breakfast, lunch, dinner and snacks, on average, accounted for 21 %, 32 %, 40 % and 11 % of total energy intake, respectively. For many nutrients, the percentage contribution to total intake did not vary within each meal, broadly in line with that for energy: 18-24 % for breakfast, 26-35 % for lunch, 35-49 % for dinner and 4-15 % for snacks. However, intakes of many foods largely depended on one meal type. The foods mainly eaten at dinner were potatoes, pulses, total vegetables, fish, meat and alcoholic beverages (52-70 %), in contrast to noodles (58 %) at lunch and bread (71 %) and dairy products (50 %) at breakfast. The foods mainly eaten at snacks were confectioneries (79 %) and sugar-sweetened beverages (52 %). Conversely, rice and eggs were more evenly distributed across three main meals (19-41 % and 30-38 %, respectively), while fruit and non-energetic beverages were more evenly distributed across all meal types (17-30 % and 19-35 %, respectively). CONCLUSIONS: These findings provide the background information on each meal type in Japanese and may help inform the development of meal-based guidelines and public health messages.