Exploring the Free-Energy Landscape and Thermodynamics of Protein-Protein Association.

We report the free-energy landscape and thermodynamics of the protein-protein association responsible for the drug-induced multimerization of HIV-1 integrase (IN). Allosteric HIV-1 integrase inhibitors promote aberrant IN multimerization by bridging IN-IN intermolecular interactions. However, the thermodynamic driving forces and kinetics of the multimerization remain largely unknown. Here, we explore the early steps in the IN multimerization by using umbrella sampling and unbiased molecular dynamics simulations in explicit solvent. In direct simulations, the two initially separated dimers spontaneously associate to form near-native complexes that resemble the crystal structure of the aberrant tetramer. Most strikingly, the effective interaction of the protein-protein association is very short-ranged: the two dimers associate rapidly within tens of nanoseconds when their binding surfaces are separated by d ≤ 4.3 Å (less than two water diameters). Beyond this distance, the oligomerization kinetics appears to be diffusion controlled with a much longer association time. The free-energy profile also captured the crucial role of allosteric IN inhibitors in promoting multimerization and explained why several C-terminal domain mutations are remarkably resistant to the drug-induced multimerization. The results also show that at small separation, the protein-protein binding process contains two consecutive phases with distinct thermodynamic signatures. First, interprotein water molecules are expelled to the bulk, resulting in a small increase in entropy, as the solvent entropy gain from the water release is nearly cancelled by the loss of side-chain entropies as the two proteins approach each other. At shorter distances, the two dry binding surfaces adapt to each other to optimize their interaction energy at the expense of further protein configurational entropy loss. Although the binding interfaces feature clusters of hydrophobic residues, overall, the protein-protein association in this system is driven by enthalpy and opposed by entropy.