Moving beyond the technology: a socio-technical roadmap for low-cost water sensor network applications.

In this paper, we review critically the current state-of-the-art for sensor network applications and approaches that have developed in response to the recent rise of low-cost technologies. We specifically focus on water-related low-cost sensor networks, and conceptualise them as socio-technical systems that can address resource management challenges and opportunities at three scales of resolution: (1) technologies, (2) users and scenarios, and (3) society and communities. Building this argument, first we identify a general structure for building low-cost sensor networks by assembling technical components across configuration levels. Second, we identify four application categories, namely operational monitoring, scientific research, system optimisation, and community development, each of which has different technical and non-technical configurations that determine how, where, by whom and for what purpose low-cost sensor networks are used. Third, we discuss the governance factors (e.g. stakeholders and users, networks sustainability and maintenance, application scenarios and integrated design) and emerging technical opportunities that we argue need to be considered to maximise the added value and long-term societal impact of the next generation of sensor network applications. We conclude that consideration of the full range of socio-technical issues is essential to realise the full potential of sensor network technologies for society and the environment.