Parkinson's disease treatment: past, present, and future.

The substantial contributions of Dr. Gerald Stern to past and current treatments for Parkinson's disease patients are reviewed, which form the foundation for an evaluation of future options to control symptoms and halt progression of the disease. These opportunities will depend on a greater understanding of the relative contributions of the environment, genetic and epigenetic influences to disease onset, and promise to emerge as strategies for improving mitochondrial function, halting accumulation of synuclein and neuromelanin, in addition to refinement of stem cell and gene therapies. Such advances will be achieved through deployment of improved models for the disease.