Iron as electron donor for denitrification: The efficiency, toxicity and mechanism.

For the treatment of low C/N wastewaters, methanol or acetate is usually dosed as electron donor for denitrification but such organics makes the process costly. To decrease the cost, iron which is the fourth most abundant element in lithosphere is suggested as the substitution of methanol and acetate. The peak volumetric removal rate (VRR) of nitrate nitrogen in the ferrous iron-dependent nitrate removal (FeNiR) reactor was 0.70 ± 0.04 kg-N/(m3·d), and the corresponding removal efficiency was 98%. Iron showed toxicity to cells by decreasing the live cell amount (dropped 56%) and the live cell activity (dropped 70%). The toxicity of iron was mainly expressed by the formation of iron encrustation. From microbial community data analysis, heterotrophs (Paracocccus, Thauera and Azoarcus) faded away while the facultative chemolithotrophs (Hyphomicrobium and Anaerolineaceae_uncultured) dominated in the reactor after replacing acetate with ferrous iron in the influent. Through scanning electron microscope (SEM) and transmission electron microscope (TEM), two iron oxidation sites in FeNiR cells were observed and accordingly two FeNiR mechanisms were proposed: 1) extracellular FeNiR in which ferrous iron was bio-oxidized extracellularly; and 2) intracellular FeNiR in which ferrous iron was chemically oxidized in periplasm. Bio-oxidation (extracellular FeNiR) and chemical oxidation (intracellular FeNiR) of ferrous iron coexisted in FeNiR reactor, but the former one predominated. Comparing with the control group without electron donor in the influent, FeNiR reactor showed 2 times higher and stable nitrate removal rate, suggesting iron could be used as electron donor for denitrification. However, further research works are still needed for the practical application of FeNiR in wastewater treatment.