Genes that drive the pathobiology of pediatric pulmonary arterial hypertension.

Emerging data from studies of pediatric-onset pulmonary arterial hypertension (PAH) indicate that the genomics of pediatric PAH is different than that of adults. There is a greater genetic burden in children, with rare genetic factors contributing to at least 35% of pediatric-onset idiopathic PAH (IPAH) compared with ~11% of adult-onset IPAH. De novo variants are the most frequent genetic cause of PAH in children, likely contributing to ~15% of all cases. Rare deleterious variants in bone morphogenetic protein receptor 2 (BMPR2) contribute to pediatric-onset familial PAH and IPAH with similar frequency as adult-onset. While likely gene-disrupting (LGD) variants in BMPR2 contribute across the lifespan, damaging missense variants are more frequent in early-onset PAH. Rare deleterious variants in T-box 4-containing protein (TBX4) are more common in pediatric-compared with adult-onset PAH, explaining ~8% of pediatric IPAH. PAH associated with congenital heart disease (APAH-CHD) and other developmental disorders account for a large proportion of pediatric PAH. SRY-related HMG box transcription factor (SOX17) was recently identified as an APAH-CHD risk gene, contributing less frequently to IPAH, with a greater prevalence of rare deleterious variants in children compared with adults. The differences in genetic burden and genes underlying pediatric- vs adult-onset PAH indicate that genetic information relevant to pediatric PAH cannot be extrapolated from adult studies. Large cohorts of pediatric-onset PAH are necessary to identify the unique etiological differences of PAH in children, as well as the natural history and response to therapy.