Cingulate subregions in posttraumatic stress disorder, chronic stress, and treatment.

Decades of research have revealed that the cingulate cortex is important in posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD). Initially inspired by basic rodent research examining the mechanisms of fear learning, researchers have attempted to determine the respective roles of the anterior cingulate cortex (ACC), anterior midcingulate cortex (aMCC), and posterior cingulate cortex (PCC) in PTSD. Various neuroimaging techniques have shown the ACC is both functionally hypoactive and structurally diminished in PTSD, while the aMCC is functionally hyperactive and structurally diminished. Relatedly, chronic stress has been shown to be a significant vulnerability factor in the development of PTSD after a traumatic event, inspiring research into the effect of chronic stress on brain activation and structure. Similar to patterns in PTSD, perceived work-related stress, outgroup membership, and lower socioeconomic status appear to negatively affect cingulate function and morphology. While great strides have been made to understand better the ACC, aMCC, and PCC in both PTSD and chronic stress, additional studies are needed to determine the origin of these cingulate abnormalities and whether they can be used as biomarkers in assessing and predicting treatment response in PTSD.