Germacrone cooperates with dexmedetomidine to alleviate high-fat diet-induced type 2 diabetes mellitus via upregulating AMPKα1 expression.

The aim of the present study was to investigate the effects of germacrone (GM) and dexmedetomidine (DEX) in treating type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM). A high-fat diet (HFD)-induced T2DM rat model was established. The experimental rats were divided into the control group, HFD group, GM treatment group, DEX treatment group and GM + DEX treatment group. In addition, adenosine monophosphate-activated protein kinase (AMPK) inhibitor compound C (CC) was used to inhibit AMPKα1 expression. All rats received their respective treatment daily for 21 days. Blood glucose and lipid levels, apoptosis of hepatic cells, and levels of inflammatory factors and oxidative stress indicators in serum samples were evaluated. Protein expression of AMPKα1 and its downstream targets were also investigated. Results demonstrated that blood glucose concentration, blood lipid indicators (endothelin, total cholesterol, triglyceride and low density lipoprotein cholesterol), cell apoptosis in liver tissues, total oxidant status, malondialdehyde, interleukin (IL)-6, tumor necrosis factor-α (TNF-α) and IL-1β levels in serum were increased in the high-fat group compared to the control but decreased following GM and/or DEX treatment. By contrast, high-density lipoprotein cholesterol and antioxidative stress indicator superoxide dismutase (SOD) were decreased in the high-fat group but increased following GM and/or DEX treatment. Protein expression of AMPKα1 and the catabolic genes carnitine palmitoyltransferase-1, peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor-α and acyl coenzyme A were decreased whilst anabolic genes, including sterol regulatory element binding protein-1c, fatty acid synthase and diacylglycerol acyltransferase-2, were increased in the HFD group. These effects were attenuated by GM and/or DEX treatment. AMPKα1 inhibition resulted in decreased SOD and increased cell apoptosis in liver tissues as well as increased IL-6, TNF-α and IL-1β levels compared with the HFD group. However, these effects were abolished following treatment with CC, GM and DEX together. Taken together these results indicated that GM worked synergistically with DEX to attenuate symptoms of high-fat-induced T2DM, with the effect potentially involving an increase in AMPKα1 expression. Copyright: © Sun et al.

Introduction

Type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM) is a common chronic metabolic disease with characteristics including hyperglycemia and impaired carbohydrate, lipid and protein metabolism (1,2). Increasing morbidity and high mortality rates make it a global challenge to human health (1,2). T2DM is mainly caused by abnormal blood circulation and liver metabolism. Both human epidemiological studies and animal models have demonstrated that T2DM contributes to liver fibrosis (3–6). In addition, numerous studies have indicated that hyperglycemia ultimately results in increased oxidative stress by inducing reactive oxygen species (ROS) production through advanced glycation end-products formation in peripheral tissue. Therefore hyperglycemia has an important role in the onset, development and progression of diabetes (7–9). Oxidative stress can induce cell apoptosis and abnormal inflammation (10,11). Abnormal inflammatory pathway activation often leads to elevation of a variety inflammatory factors such as tumor necrosis factor-α (TNF-α), interleukin (IL)-6, IL-1β and protein kinase C (PKC). This can lead to abnormal lipid metabolism and ultimately activation of the insulin resistance phenotype which is essential for T2DM progression (12,13). Abnormal blood glucose and lipid levels, increased oxidative stress response, liver cell apoptosis and inflammatory reaction are critical for T2DM development and progression, and could be potential therapy targets.

Dexmedetomidine (DEX), a potent and highly selective agonist of α2 adrenergic receptor, has been widely used in treating painful diabetic neuropathy for its anti-nociceptive function (14,15). DEX protects from post-myocardial ischemia reperfusion lung damage in diabetic rats (16). In addition, it significantly reduces damage caused by transient global cerebral ischemia/reperfusion potentially via decreasing oxidative stress and inflammation (17). DEX reduces oxidative stress and the release of inflammatory factors resulting in improved immune function and decreased cell apoptosis (18,19). Due to oxidative stress and abnormal inflammatory pathway activation being important for T2DM development and progression, the present study hypothesized that DEX may be effective for T2DM treatment.

Germacrone (GM), a monocyclic sesquiterpenoid existing in Geraniaceae, Ericaceae and Zingiberaceae plants, displays antitumor, antiviral, antibacterial and anti-inflammatory properties (20). In addition, GM can reduce cell apoptosis in a dose-dependent manner (21) and protect from oxidative stress injury (22). Guo and Choung (23) identified that GM attenuated hyperlipidemia and improved lipid metabolism in high-fat diet (HFD)-induced obese C57BL/6J mice. These results indicated that GM may be beneficial in the treatment of diabetes. However, to the best of our knowledge, there are no reports investigating GM for the treatment of T2DM, nor GM co-administered with DEX for any diseases. Adenosine monophosphate-activated protein kinase (AMPK) is a heterotrimeric complex that consists of a catalytic (α) subunit and two regulatory (β and γ) subunits. Overexpression of AMPKα1 ameliorates fatty liver with markedly improved hepatic steatosis to promote hepatic lipid metabolism in hyperlipidemic diabetic rats (24).

The present study hypothesized that GM and DEX may have a beneficial effect in treating T2DM due to the aforementioned antioxidative, anti-inflammatory and antiapoptotic effects. For in vivo experiments, a HFD-induced T2DM rat model was established to evaluate the effect of GM and DEX in treating T2DM. To the best of our knowledge, this was the first report to study GM co-administered with DEX for T2DM treatment with the present results demonstrating a synergistic effect between GM and DEX in attenuating T2DM.

Materials and methods

Establishment of experimental T2DM model and drug treatment

All animal experiments were approved by the Animal Care and Experimental Committee of Heilongjiang Province Hospital (Harbin, China). A total of 120 6–10 week old male Wistar Albino rats (200–250 mg) (Shanghai Biotechnology Corporation) were used for experiments. All experimental animals were treated according to the guidelines of the National Institutes of Health Guide for the care and Use of Laboratory Animals (25). Rats were housed in individually ventilated cages under specific pathogen free conditions such as 12-h light/dark cycle, 23±2°C temperature with free access to sterilized water and food ad libitum.

GM (cat. no. S9311) and DEX (cat. no. S3075) were purchased from Selleck Chemicals. Experimental rats were intraperitoneally injected with 10, 20, 30, 40 or 50 mg/kg GM daily for 10 days to evaluate the toxicity of GM. There was no significant difference in body weight and blood glucose in GM-treated rats compared with untreated rats (data not shown). The experimental T2DM model was constructed according to the methods detailed by Li et al (26). In brief, experimental rats were fed with a HFD that contained 20% sugar, 10% lard oil, 1% sodium cholate, 2.5% cholesterol and 66% normal commercial pellet diet for two weeks. Meanwhile, 10 rats were fed with a standard diet containing 55% carbohydrate, 24% protein, 5% fat, 3% fiber, 0.6% calcium, 0.3% phosphorus, 6.1% H2O and 6% ash w/w as the control group. The standard diet and HFD were purchased from Beijing Vital River Laboratory Animal Technology Co., Ltd. Following 2 weeks HFD feeding, A total of 60 rats were intraperitoneally injected with low dose streptozotocin (STZ; 35 mg/kg; Sigma-Aldrich; Merck KGaA) dissolved in citrate buffer (pH 4.5; 20 mg/ml). Seven days following STZ injection, 40 rats with non-fasting glucose level ≥300 mg/dl were considered as diabetic. Then, rats were fed on HFD till the end of the study. The experimental HFD-induced T2DM rats were randomly divided into four groups: HFD group, GM treatment group, DEX treatment group and the GM and DEX co-treatment group.

Experimental design for drug treatment was as follows: i) Healthy control (Ctrl; n=10): Animals in this group were administered saline [0.1 ml/rat/day; sub-cutaneous (s.c.)] for 21 days with standard diets; ii) Diabetic control (high-fat; n=10): Animals in this group were administered saline (0.1 ml/rat /day; s.c.) for 21 days with a HFD; iii) Diabetic + GM treatment (GM; n=10): Animals in this group were administered 50 mg/kg GM (0.1 ml/rat/day; s.c.) for 21 days with HFD; iv) Diabetic + DEX treatment (DEX; n=10): Animals in this group were administered 25 µg/kg DEX (Jiangsu Hengrui Medicine Co., Ltd.; 0.1 ml/rat/day; s.c.) for 21 days with HFD; v) Diabetic + GM and DEX treatment (GM+DEX; n=10): Animals in this group were administered GM (50 mg/kg/day; s.c.) and DEX (25 µg/kg day; s.c.) for 21 days with HFD.

Serum sample preparation and evaluation

At the end of drug treatment, 3 ml blood samples were collected from the heart of animals under 3.6% chloral hydrate (360 mg/kg) intraperitoneal anesthesia (n=4 rats/group) and the rats were sacrificed by decapitation. Blood samples were coagulated for ~25 min at room temperature, then centrifuged at 400 × g for 20 min at room temperature. Hitachi 7600 biochemical analyzer (Hitachi, Ltd.) was used to evaluate blood glucose and lipids including endothelin (ET), total cholesterol (TC), triglyceride (TG), low-density lipoprotein cholesterol (LDL-c) and high-density lipoprotein cholesterol (HDL-c). In addition, oxidative stress detection kits purchased from Nanjing Jiancheng Bioengineering Institute (cat. nos. A001-3, A003-8 and A006-2) were used to detect superoxide dismutase (SOD), total oxidant status (TOS) and malondialdehyde (MDA) in serum samples according to the manufacturer's instructions, respectively. All above serum indicators were evaluated in samples from each rat with at least three repeats.

Histopathological examination

Experimental rats (n=4 rats/group) were anesthetized with 3.6% chloral hydrate (360 mg/kg) injected intraperitoneally and immobilized in the supine position. Then rats were perfused with 0.9% saline via the heart, followed by 4% paraformaldehyde (PFA) to fix tissues. The livers obtained were fixed in 4% paraformaldehyde for 4–6 h at 4°C and placed in 20% sucrose PBS solution at 4°C overnight. Tissue sections were embedded in paraffin and cut into serial coronal sections (5-µm-thick). Masson trichrome staining was used for collagen fiber staining. In brief, paraffin sections of liver tissue were conventionally dewaxed, stained with hematoxylin for 5 min at room temperature, differentiated with 1% salt acid ethanol for 5 sec then finally stained with Masson solution for 5 min at room temperature. Liver tissue sections were washed using water, stained by Celestin blue solution for l min at room temperature, treated with 95% ethanol for 5 sec and carbolic acid xylene for 5 sec then sealed by neutral gum. Blue-green staining indicated collagen fibers and red staining indicated liver cells. A total of 5 fields of view (magnification, ×400) were selected at random for imaging. Histological changes and stage of fibrosis in the liver were evaluated under a light microscope. Hepatic fibrosis was evaluated based on the METAVIR scoring system (26).

Terminal deoxynucleotidyl-transferase-mediated dUTP nick end labeling (TUNEL) staining

TUNEL staining was performed to detect apoptotic cells according to the manufacturer's instructions (ApopTag®; Chemicon International; Thermo Fisher Scientific, Inc.) as described previously (27). Liver tissues were obtained as described above and stored at −80°C for later use. To evaluate apoptotic cells, ten randomly selected fields of view without significant necrotic regions (magnification, ×400) were selected. Cells were considered apoptotic when TUNEL staining was positive and morphological signs of apoptosis were also present as previous described (28).

Immunohistochemistry (IHC)

Liver sections (4-µm-thick) were fixed in PFA for 4–6 h at 4°C and used for caspase-3 staining. Antigen retrieval was performed by heating the slides in 1 mmol/l EDTA (pH 8.0) for 30 min. Samples were blocked with 2% sheep serum (HyClone; GE Healthcare Life Sciences) at 37°C for 20 min, and incubated with primary antibody against caspase-3 (cat. no. # clone 13-8; 1:50; Dako; Agilent Technologies, Inc.) at 37°C for 30 min then 4°C overnight. Sections were washed with 0.1 mol/l PBS for 5 min three times, then incubated with horseradish peroxidase-conjugated sheep anti-rabbit secondary antibody (1:5,000; Chemicon International; Thermo Fisher Scientific, Inc.) for 30 min at 37°C. Samples were washed with 0.1 mol/l PBS for 5 min three times and incubated with DAB chromogen at room temperature for 5 min. The negative control replaced the primary antibody with 2% goat serum (HyClone; GE Healthcare Life Sciences). The immunohistochemical images were acquired though a light microscope (DMI3000; Leica, Microsystems, Inc.) at ×400 magnification.

ELISA

ELISA was used to determine the levels of TNF-α (cat. no. ab100785; Abcam), IL-1β (cat. no. ab100768; Abcam) and IL-6 (cat. no. BMS625; Thermo Fisher Scientific, Inc.) in serum samples. All protocols were performed in strict accordance with the manual instructions and each sample was evaluated in three duplicates.

Western blot analysis

In brief, protein was extracted from liver tissues using radioimmunoprecipitation assay lysis buffer (Beyotime Institute of Biotechnology) containing a 2% protease inhibitor cocktail tablet (Roche Diagnostics). Samples were centrifuged at 13,000 × g for 15 min at 4°C. The supernatant was collected and the protein concentration was measured by bicinchoninic acid protein assay kit (Sigma-Aldrich; Merck KGaA). The supernatant was stored at −80°C for further use. The protein samples (20 µl) were loaded on SDS-PAGE (12% gel) at 75 V for 2 h and transferred to polyvinylidene difluoride membranes at 350 mA for 2 h. The membranes was blocked with 5% non-fat milk in Tris-buffered saline and Polysorbate 20 (TBST) for 2 h at room temperature. Membranes were then incubated with primary antibodies against AMPKα1 (1:1,000; cat. no. CST#2795; Cell Signaling Technology, Inc.), carnitine palmitoyl transferase-1 (CPT-1) (1:1,000; cat. no. CST#12252; Cell Signaling Technology, Inc.), peroxisome proliferators-activated receptors-α (PPAR-α) (1:1,000; cat. no. CST#2435; Cell Signaling Technology, Inc.), acyl coenzyme A (ACA) (1:1,000; cat. no. CST#9796; Cell Signaling Technology, Inc.), sterol regulatory element binding proteins-1c (SREBP-1c; 1:500; cat. no. #ab28481; Abcam), fatty acid synthase (FAS; 1:500; cat. no. #ab1366619; Abcam) and diacylglycerol acyltransferase-2 (DGAT-2; 1:1,000; cat. no. #ab237613; Abcam) at 4°C overnight. β-actin (cat. no. sc-130656; 1:1,000; Santa Cruz Biotechnology) was used as the loading control. Following three washes with TBS with Tween 20, proteins were incubated with the horseradish peroxidase-conjugated secondary antibody goat anti-rabbit IgG (cat. no. TA140003; 1:5,000; OriGene Technologies) for 2-h at room temperature. Protein bands were visualized with Amersham ECL Prime Western Blotting Detection Reagent (cat. no. RPN2232; GE Healthcare) then scanned with Alpha Innotech FluorChem IS 8900 Imaging System (Alpha Innotech, Inc.) and analyzed by AlphaView 1.02 software (Alpha Innotech, Inc).

AMPK inhibitor treatment

The AMPK inhibitor compound C (CC; cat. no. S7840) was purchased from Selleck Chemicals. For experiments, 20 mg/kg CC was injected intraperitoneally. The rats were treated as described above with the addition of 20 mg/kg CC (0.1 ml/rat/day) for 21 days in high-fat group (CC), DEX group (DEX + CC) and DEX + GM group (CC + DEX + GM). For subsequent experimentation with samples from CC-treated rats, TUNEL staining, western blot analysis, MDA oxidative stress reagent kit and ELISA kits for SOD, TNF-α, IL-1β and IL-6 were used as described above.

Statistical analysis

Statistical analysis was performed using SPSS 17.0 software (SPSS, Inc.). Comparisons between multiple groups were determined by one-way analysis of variance followed by Fisher's least significant difference post hoc test. All data are presented as the mean ± standard deviation with at least three repeats per experiment. P<0.05 was considered to indicate a statistically significant difference.

Results

GM works in synergy with DEX to reduce glucose levels and alleviate blood lipid indicators in HFD-induced T2DM rats

T2DM is characterized by increased blood glucose and impaired lipid metabolism (1). Concentration of glucose and blood lipid indicators of ET, TC, TG and LDL-c in the high-fat group were significantly increased (P<0.05; Fig. 1A-E) whilst HDL-c significantly decreased (P<0.05; Fig. 1F) compared with the control group, which indicated that the experimental T2DM model was successfully established. Glucose concentration was decreased (P<0.05; Fig. 1A) following treatment with GM or DEX compared with the high-fat group and this effect was enhanced by combining GM and DEX treatment (P<0.05; Fig. 1A), indicating that GM worked in synergy with DEX to attenuate T2DM. Compared with high-fat group rats, the blood lipid levels of ET, TC and TG of the GM group did not show significant changes (Fig. 1B-D), whilst LDL-c decreased (P<0.05; Fig. 1E) and HDL-c increased (P<0.05; Fig. 1F) significantly. The concentrations of ET, TC, TG and LDL-c in DEX group were significantly decreased (P<0.05; Fig. 1A-E) whilst HDL-c levels were increased (P<0.05; Fig. 1F) compared with the high-fat group. This indicated that DEX alleviated the impaired lipid metabolism in the experimental T2DM rats. The effect of DEX on ET, TC, TG, LDL-c and HDL-c concentration was significantly enhanced by combining treatment with GM (Fig. 1). Combination of GM and DEX treatment nearly reverted blood glucose, ET, TC, TG, LDL-c and HDL-c concentrations to those observed in the control group. Taken together, these results indicated that GM worked in a synergistic manner with DEX to reduce blood glucose and alleviate impaired lipid metabolism in HFD-induced experimental T2DM rats.

Figure 1.

GM improves the effect of DEX in reducing blood glucose level and alleviating blood lipid indicators in HFD-induced type 2 diabetes mellitus rats. (A) Blood glucose and blood lipid levels including (B) ET, (C) TC, (D) TG, (E) LDL-c and (F) HDL-c levels were evaluated in control, high-fat, GM, DEX and GM + DEX groups. *P<0.05 vs. ctrl group; #P<0.05 vs. high-fat group; &P<0.05 vs. DEX group. GM, germacrone; DEX, dexmedetomidine; ET, endothelin; TC, total cholesterol; TG, triglyceride; LDL-c, low density lipoprotein cholesterol; HDL-c, high-density lipoprotein cholesterol; ctrl, control.

GM increases the effect of DEX in alleviating hepatic fibrosis of HFD-induced T2DM rats

Both human epidemiological studies and animal models have demonstrated that T2DM can independently contribute to liver fibrosis (3–6), thus hepatic fibrosis lesions were analyzed by Masson trichrome staining in the present study. The control group demonstrated a small amount of collagen fibers in the central venous wall, venous and artery wall of interlobular and no hepatic fibrosis staining in the liver blood sinus wall (Fig. 2A-a). However, in the high-fat group, there was a large number of collagen fibers present. Severe fatty degeneration, cellular ballooning and collagen deposition were observed in the peripheral space of sinus of Zone 3 area or outside of hepatic cells. Collagen fibers of the central venous wall and interlobular venous and artery wall were thickened. The hepatic fibrosis score was 3.6±1.2 for high-fat group compared with the 1.4±0.4 for control group (P<0.05; Fig. 2A-b). Compared with the high-fat group, the number of collagen fibers in the GM group decreased and hepatic cell number increased (Fig. 2A-c). These effects were enhanced in the DEX group (Fig. 2A-d) and further intensified in the GM + DEX group (Fig. 2A-e) compared with the GM only group. Taken together, these results indicated that GM increased the effect of DEX in alleviating hepatic fibrosis in HFD-induced T2DM rats.

Figure 2.

GM increases the effect of DEX in alleviating hepatic fibrosis and cell apoptosis in HFD-induced type 2 diabetes mellitus rats. (A) Representative images of liver Masson trichrome staining in (A-a) ctrl, (A-b) high-fat, (A-c) GM, (A-d) DEX and (A-e) GM + DEX groups, where collagen fibers were stained blue-green and liver cells were stained red. (B) Representative images of TUNEL staining in (B-a) ctrl, (B-b) high-fat, (B-c) GM, (B-d) DEX and (B-e) GM + DEX groups where normal cells were stained blue and apoptotic cells were stained brown. (C) Representative images of caspase-3 immunohistochemistry staining in (C-a) ctrl, (C-b) high-fat, (C-c) GM, (C-d) DEX and (C-e) GM + DEX groups where normal cells were stained blue and caspase-3-positive cells were stained brown. (D) Quantification of apoptotic cells from TUNEL staining. (E) Quantification of caspase-3 positive cells. Magnification, ×400. *P<0.05 vs. ctrl group; #P<0.05 vs. high-fat group; &P<0.05 vs. DEX group. GM, germacrone; DEX, dexmedetomidine; TUNEL, terminal deoxynucleotidyl transferase-mediated dUTP nick end labeling; ctrl, control.

GM works in synergy with DEX to reduce cell apoptosis in HFD-induced T2DM rats

Increased liver cell apoptosis has been identified in experimental T2DM models (29). In the present study, TUNEL and IHC staining of caspase-3 were used for cell apoptosis analysis. TUNEL staining revealed that the percentage of apoptotic cells in the liver tissues of the high-fat group was significantly higher than the control group (P<0.05; Fig. 2B), and decreased following GM treatment (P<0.05) and DEX treatment (P<0.05). This indicated that GM or DEX reduced cell apoptosis. In addition, compared with the DEX group, the percentage of apoptotic cells in the GM + DEX group was significantly decreased (P<0.05; Fig. 2D). IHC staining of caspase-3 indicated that the percentage of caspase-3 positive cells in the high-fat group increased significantly compared with the control group (P<0.05; Fig. 2E), and decreased following DEX treatment (P<0.05; Fig. 2E). There was no significant difference in caspase-3 positive cells between GM group and high-fat group. Compared with the DEX group, the percentage of caspase-3 positive cells in the GM + DEX group was significantly decreased (P<0.05; Fig. 2E). Taken together, these results indicated that GM worked synergistically with DEX to reduce cell apoptosis in HFD-induced T2DM rats.

GM works synergistically with DEX to reduce oxidative stress and the inflammatory response in HFD-induced T2DM rats

Hyperglycemia caused by T2DM results in increased oxidative stress by inducing ROS production, which can induce inflammation (7–9). Therefore, the oxidative stress indicators and inflammation-related cytokines in serum samples of experimental rats were evaluated. The concentration of antioxidative enzyme SOD was significantly decreased (P<0.05; Fig. 3A) whilst oxidative stress indicators MDA and GSH were significantly increased (P<0.05; Fig. 3B and C) in the high-fat group compared with the control group, indicating an increase in oxidative stress. In addition, the levels of IL-6, TNF-α and IL-1β in the high-fat group were significantly increased (P<0.05; Fig. 3D) compared with the control group, suggesting an enhanced inflammatory response. SOD concentration was increased (P<0.05) whilst MDA, TOS, IL-6, TNF-α and IL-1β were unchanged in the GM group compared with the high-fat group (Fig. 3). SOD was significantly increased (P<0.05) whilst TOS, MDA, IL-6, TNF-α and IL-1β were significantly decreased (P<0.05) in DEX group compared with the high-fat group (Fig. 3). These changes were further amplified in the GM + DEX group (Fig. 3). These results indicated that GM worked in synergy with DEX to reduce oxidative stress and the inflammatory response in HFD-induced T2DM rats.

Figure 3.

GM cooperates with DEX to reduce oxidative stress and the inflammatory response in HFD-induced type 2 diabetes mellitus rats. Oxidative stress kits were used to detect (A) SOD, (B) MDA and (C) GSH in serum samples. (D) Inflammatory factors including TNF-α, IL-1β and IL-6 in serum samples were detected by ELISA. *P<0.05 vs. ctrl group; #P<0.05 vs. high-fat group; &P<0.05 vs. DEX group. GM, germacrone; DEX, dexmedetomidine; SOD, superoxide dismutase; MDA, malondialdehyde; TOS, total oxidant status; TNF-α, tumor necrosis factor-α; IL, interleukin; ctrl, control.

GM improves the effect of DEX in regulating AMPKα1, the downstream lipid metabolism indicators and anabolic gene expression in HFD-induced T2DM rats

Previous reports indicated that the AMPK/AKT pathway was involved in cardiac protection of type 1 diabetes mellitus (T1DM) (30–32). In order to evaluate the exact role of the AMPK pathway in HFD-induced T2DM rats, the protein levels of AMPKα1 and its downstream targets were detected by western blot analysis. The relative protein level of AMPKα1 in the high-fat group was significantly lower (P<0.05) compared with the control group and increased following GM or DEX treatment (P<0.05; Fig. 4A and B). In addition, AMPKα1 in the GM + DEX group was significantly upregulated compared with the DEX group (P<0.05; Fig. 4A and B). The protein levels of the SREBP-1c, FAS and DGAT-2 were significantly higher in the high-fat group compared with the control group (P<0.05; Fig. 4C and D). Following treatment with GM, SREBP-1c and FAS were downregulated (P<0.05) whilst DGAT-2 level remained unchanged compared with the high-fat group (Fig. 4C and D). SREBP-1c, FAS and DGAT-2 levels in the DEX group were significantly decreased (P<0.05) compared with the high-fat group, and this effect was enhanced in the GM + DEX group (P<0.05, Fig. 4C and D). The relative protein level of CPT-1, PPAR-α and ACA in the high-fat group were significantly decreased compared with the control group (P<0.05; Fig. 4E and F). Following GM treatment, ACA was significantly upregulated (P<0.05) whilst CPT-1 and PPAR-α remained unchanged compared with the high-fat group (Fig. 4). CPT-1, PPAR-α and ACA were significantly upregulated (P<0.05) in the DEX group and this effect was further increased in the GM + DEX group compared with the high-fat group (P<0.05, Fig. 4E and F). In conclusion, these results demonstrated that the AMPK pathway was suppressed in HFD-induced T2DM rats. However, GM worked synergistically with DEX to increase AMPK pathway activation by upregulating AMPKα1, CPT-1, PPAR-α and ACA expression, whilst reducing SREBP-1c, FAS and DGAT-2 gene expression.

Figure 4.

GM improves the effect of DEX in regulating AMPKα1, downstream lipid metabolism indicators and anabolic genes in HFD-induced type 2 diabetes mellitus rats. Protein expression levels of AMPKα1 were (A) determined by western blotting and (B) quantified. Expression of downstream anabolic genes, including SREBP-1c, FAS and DGAT-2 was (C) determined by western blotting and (D) quantified. Expression of catabolic genes of AMPKα1, including CPT-1, PPAR-α and ACA was (E) analyzed in liver tissues by western blot analysis and (F) quantified. Relative protein expression was normalized to β-actin. *P<0.05 vs. ctrl group; #P<0.05 vs. HFD group; &P<0.05 vs. DEX group. GM, germacrone; DEX, dexmedetomidine; AMPKα1, AMP-activated protein kinase α1; SREBP-1c, sterol regulatory element binding protein-1c; FAS, fatty acid synthase; DGAT-2, diacylglycerol acyltransferase-2; CPT-1, carnitine palmitoyltransferase-1; PPAR-α, peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor-α; ACA, acyl coenzyme A; ctrl, control.

GM improves the effect of DEX to antagonize CC with regards to cell apoptosis, oxidative stress and inflammatory response in HFD-induced T2DM rats

To further evaluate the influence of AMPKα1 in HFD-induced T2DM rats, the AMPK inhibitor CC was used. Western blot analysis revealed that AMPKα1 expression level in the high-fat group was significantly lower (P<0.05; Fig. 5A and B) than the control group, and was further downregulated in the CC group (P<0.05; Fig. 5A and B). Following treatment with DEX, the AMPKα1 level was significantly increased (P<0.05) compared with the CC group, and this effect was further enhanced with GM and DEX co-treatment (P<0.05; Fig. 5A and B). The expression levels of anabolic genes SREBP-1c, FAS and DGAT-2 were upregulated (P<0.05; Fig. 5C and D) in the CC group compared with the high-fat group. Following treatment with DEX, SREBP-1c, FAS and DGAT-2 protein levels were significantly decreased (P<0.05) compared with the CC group, and combined treatment with GM and DEX further downregulated (P<0.05) the protein levels (Fig. 5C and D). The relative protein levels of the catabolic genes CPT-1, PPAR-α and ACA in the high-fat group were significantly lower (P<0.05; Fig. 5E and F) compared with the control group and were further downregulated (P<0.05) following CC treatment. By contrast, CPT-1, PPAR-α and ACA in the CC + DEX group were significantly increased (P<0.05) compared with the CC group and further upregulated (P<0.05) in the CC + GM + DEX group (Fig. 5E and F). TUNEL staining demonstrated that the percentage of apoptotic cells in liver tissues of high-fat group rats was significantly higher (P<0.05) compared with the control group, and further increased (P<0.05) in the CC group (Fig. 5G and H). By contrast, the percentage of apoptotic cells in the CC + DEX group was significantly decreased (P<0.05) compared with the CC group and further decreased (P<0.05) in the CC + GM + DEX group (Fig. 5G and H). Oxidative stress and inflammatory response analysis demonstrated that the concentration of SOD in serum from the CC group was decreased compared with the high-fat group (P<0.05; Fig. 5I). Following treatment with DEX, SOD concentration was significantly increased (P<0.05) compared with the CC group, and further upregulated (P<0.05) after treatment with GM + DEX (Fig. 5I). The concentration of inflammatory factors, including IL-6, TNF-α and IL-1β in the CC group was significantly increased compared with high-fat group (P<0.05). Following DEX treatment, levels of IL-6, TNF-α and IL-1β were significantly decreased (P<0.05) compared with the CC group, and further decreased (P<0.05) in the GM + DEX group (Fig. 5J). Taken together, these results indicated that AMPK inhibition aggravated HFD-induced T2DM by increasing cell apoptosis and the inflammatory response; however, these effects were reversed following GM and DEX co-treatment.

Figure 5.

GM cooperates with DEX to antagonize the effect of AMPK inhibitor CC on cell apoptosis, oxidative stress and the inflammatory response in HFD-induced type 2 diabetes mellitus rats. Protein expression of AMPKα1 was (A) determined using western blotting and (B) quantified. Expression of downstream anabolic genes, including SREBP-1c, FAS and DGAT-2 was (C) determined using western blotting and (D) quantified. Expression of catabolic genes of AMPKα1, including CPT-1, PPAR-α and ACA was (E) determined using western blotting and (F) quantified. (G) TUNEL staining was used to evaluate cell apoptosis where normal cells were stained blue and apoptotic cells were stained brown (magnification, ×400). (H) Quantification of apoptotic cells. Concentration of (I) SOD and (J) TNF-α, IL-1β and IL-6 in serum samples. *P<0.05 vs. ctrl group; #P<0.05 vs. high-fat group; &P<0.05 vs. CC group; ^P<0.05 vs. CC + DEX group. GM, germacrone; DEX, dexmedetomidine; AMPK, AMP-activated protein kinase; CC, compound C; AMPKα1, AMP-activated protein kinase α1; SREBP-1c, sterol regulatory element binding protein-1c; FAS, fatty acid synthase; DGAT-2, diacylglycerol acyltransferase-2; CPT-1, carnitine palmitoyltransferase-1; PPAR-α, peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor-α; ACA, acyl coenzyme A; TUNEL, terminal deoxynucleotidyl transferase-mediated dUTP nick end labeling; SOD, superoxide dismutase; TNF-α, tumor necrosis factor-α; IL, interleukin; Ctrl, control.

Discussion

To the best of our knowledge, the pharmacological effects of GM and DEX in treating T2DM have not been previously analyzed. In the present study, the effects of GM and DEX in treating T2DM were analyzed in a HFD-induced T2DM model in the present study. The results demonstrated that GM worked synergistically with DEX to alleviate T2DM by reducing blood glucose and blood lipid indicators, hepatic fibrosis, cell apoptosis, oxidative stress and the inflammatory response, which may be due to the upregulation of AMPKα1 expression. Potential limitations of the present study include the fact that the experimental HFD-induced T2DM model used younger rats (<1 year old) but T2DM is typically considered as a disease of the elderly (2). In addition, the experimental HFD-induced T2DM model cannot fully represent T2DM in human patients, where the effects of DEX and GM may be different. Moreover, the effects of DEX or GM alone in treating T2DM were limited and the underlying mechanism of how they cooperated with each other was not fully elucidated. However, to the best of our knowledge, the present study was the first to test DEX and GM with regards to the treatment of T2DM and to demonstrate the beneficial effects. Future studies are required to further confirm this.

The HFD-induced T2DM model was established according to previous reports (33). In experimental diabetic animals, feeding a HFD alone or administration of a diabetogenic agent were reported to induce T2DM with noticeable glucose-stimulated insulin secretion, insulin resistance, obesity, persistent hyperglycemia, moderate degree of insulinemia, as well as high total cholesterol levels and TG levels (26,34). Wang et al (35) reported that HFD-induced T2DM leads to an increase in blood glucose, TG, TC and insulin levels (35). The present study was in agreement with these studies. Blood glucose and lipid levels of ET, TC, TG and LDL-c in the high-fat group rats were significantly increased whilst HDL-c decreased, which indicated that the experimental T2DM model was established successfully. Subsequently, the therapeutic effect of GM and DEX in experimental diabetic animals was evaluated. DEX treatment caused a decrease in blood glucose concentration, ET, TC, TG and LDL-c and an increase in HDL-c. These effects were further enhanced by DEX co-treatment with GM.

Abnormal blood circulation system and liver metabolism are the main causes of T2DM (1,2). Human epidemiological studies and animal models have demonstrated that T2DM can independently contribute to liver fibrosis in nonalcoholic steatohepatitis, a common diabetic complication associated with insulin resistance, obesity and hyperglycemia (36,37). Zhou et al (38) observed hepatocyte ballooning, bridging liver fibrosis and hepatic collagen accumulation in T2DM rats (38). In the present study, Masson staining was used to evaluate hepatic fibrosis lesions. In HFD-induced T2DM rats, there were a large number of collagen fibers, severe fatty degeneration and hepatocellular ballooning. Collagen deposition was observed in the peripheral clearance of sinus of zone 3 area or outside of hepatic cells with severe fat degeneration and balloon-like changes. These results indicated that HFD-induced T2DM rats likely developed liver fibrosis. However, the number of collagen fibers in GM and DEX groups decreased while hepatic cell number increased, with these effects enhanced by co-administration of GM and DEX. These results indicated that GM enhanced the effect of DEX in alleviating hepatic fibrosis in HFD-induced T2DM rats.

Michurina et al (30) identified that liver cell apoptosis is present in models of obesity and T2DM. Hepatocyte apoptosis and fibrosis also occur in non-alcoholic fatty liver disease induced by T2DM and obesity. Diabetes leads to an increase in the expression of CYP24A1, an enzyme implicated in vitamin D metabolism, which might have an important role in the progression of kidney lesions during diabetic nephropathy (39,40). This accelerates senescence induction and caspase-3 expression, destabilizing vitamin D metabolism in the renal proximal tubules, resulting in cellular instability and apoptosis, and thereby accelerating tubular injury progression during diabetic nephropathy (40). High glucose treatment induces a time-dependent dual effect including early proliferation and late apoptosis that resembles a ‘crisis’ in post-proliferative senescence (41). Apoptosis is associated with an increase of active caspase-3 levels (42,43). The dependency of apoptosis on activation of the caspase-3 pathway has been identified in both maturity-onset diabetes of the young and T2DM animal models (44,45). In the present study, the percentage of apoptotic cells in the liver tissues of the high-fat group was significantly higher compared with the control group, and decreased following GM or DEX treatment. In addition, combined treatment with GM and DEX further decreased the percentage of apoptotic cells in HFD-induced T2DM rats. The present results indicated that GM acted in synergy with DEX to reduce cell apoptosis in HFD-induced T2DM.

Hyperglycemia ultimately results in oxidative stress by inducing ROS production, which is considered to contribute to diabetes onset, development and progression (7–9). ROS cause insulin resistance in peripheral tissues by reducing glucose uptake, downregulating insulin receptor substrate 1 tyrosine phosphorylation and decreasing glucose transporter 4 translocation (46,47). These findings indicate that oxidative stress may be an effective therapeutic target for treating diabetes. Recent studies revealed that the activity of glutathione peroxidase, catalase and SOD is attenuated in both type I and II diabetes mellitus (48–50). In the present study, the concentration of SOD was markedly decreased whilst TOS and MDA were significantly increased in T2DM rats. DEX and GM + DEX treatments significantly attenuated this effect, and GM enhanced the effect of DEX in alleviating oxidative stress.

Chronic hyperglycemia and insulin resistance stimulate the accumulation of ROS, triggering the NF-κB pathway and ultimately leading to an inflammatory response in the liver (51). In addition, high blood glucose and elevated lipid levels in T2DM cause chronic inflammation (52,53). Inflammation, together with hepatic fat metabolism, are the main causative factors of liver injury in diabetes (54). Increased TNF-α, IL-6 and IL-1β levels serve a major role in chronic inflammation (52,55,56). Abnormal inflammatory pathway activation often leads to elevation of inflammatory factor expression, including TNF-α, IL-1β, IL-6 and PKC, which are associated with abnormal lipid metabolism, insulin resistance phenotype and T2DM progression (12,13). The present study identified that TNF-α, IL-1β and IL-6 were significantly increased in T2DM rats. However, the inflammatory factor levels were decreased in the DEX group and GM + DEX treatment further downregulated TNF-α, IL-1β and IL-6 levels.

The AMPK/AKT pathway is involved in cardiac protection via activation of the AMPK-mediated anti-oxidative pathway and the lipid-lowering pathway in T1DM (30–32). In addition, activated AMPK inhibits caspase-3 activity induced by high glucose in vascular endothelial cells to reduce cell apoptosis (57). AMPKα1, a major subtype expressed by vascular smooth muscle cells, is the main contributor to AMPKα activity. It is able to downregulate endothelial nitric oxide synthase and reduce the expression of genes involved in the antioxidant defense system, thus resulting in an increase of active oxygen levels in endothelial cells in T2DM (58). Furthermore, overexpression of AMPKα1 ameliorates fatty liver with markedly improved hepatic steatosis by promoting hepatic lipid metabolism in hyperlipidemic diabetic rats (24). Therefore, AMPKα1 possesses protective effects including oxidation resistance and lipid-decreasing abilities, which alleviate the caspase-3 activity caused by high glucose in T2DM. In the present study, the protein expression of AMPKα1 was significantly decreased, accompanied by downregulation of catabolic genes CPT-1, PPAR-α and ACA as well as upregulation of anabolic genes SREBP-1c, FAS and DGAT-2 in HFD-induced T2DM rats. In addition, it was identified that GM cooperated with DEX to increase AMPKα1 and catabolic gene expression whilst reducing anabolic genes expression. The AMPK inhibitor CC was used to study the effect of AMPKα1 on HFD-induced T2DM rats. Results revealed that AMPKα1 inhibition resulted in significantly increased apoptotic cells in liver tissues, decreased SOD and increased inflammatory factors, including IL-6, TNF-α and IL-1β compared with the high-fat group. However, these effects were abolished by combining the CC treatment with GM and DEX, indicating that GM cooperated with DEX to antagonize the effect of AMPK inhibition on cell apoptosis, oxidative stress and inflammatory response in HFD-induced T2DM rats.

In conclusion, the present results indicated that GM cooperated with DEX to ameliorate HFD-induced T2DM in rats. GM worked synergistically with DEX to downregulate blood glucose and lipid levels, alleviate hepatic fibrosis, and reduce cell apoptosis, oxidative stress and the inflammatory response. The underlying mechanism may partially be due to promotion of AMPKα1 expression as well as its downstream targets. To the best of our knowledge, this is the first study to investigate GM or a combination of GM and DEX together for treating experimental T2DM rats.