John Lippmann1,2,3. 1. Corresponding author: John Lippmann, DAN Asia-Pacific Foundation / Australasian Diving Safety Foundation, PO Box 478, Canterbury, VIC 3126, Australia, johnl@adsf.org.au. 2. DAN Asia-Pacific Foundation / Australasian Diving Safety Foundation, Ashburton, Victoria, Australia. 3. Department of Public Health and Preventative Medicine, Monash University, Victoria, Australia.
Abstract
INTRODUCTION: The aim of this study was to identify characteristics of victims of fatal snorkelling and breath-hold diving accidents in Australia from 2001-2013, inclusive, to determine underlying factors and risks associated with such activities and inform appropriate countermeasures. METHODS: The National Coronial Information System (NCIS) was searched to identify snorkelling and breath-hold diving-related cases reported to Australian coroners for the years 2001-2013, inclusive. Coronial data in the form of findings, witness and police reports, medical histories and autopsies were collected and collated, and descriptive statistics were used to analyse these data. A chain of events analysis was used to determine the likely sequence of events. RESULTS: There were 175 identified snorkelling-related fatalities during the study period. Most victims were middle-aged males (mean age 49 years). Pre-existing health conditions were possible contributors to 41% of the deaths, the main being ischaemic heart disease. The majority of deaths occurred in Queensland in inexperienced snorkellers, often in commercial settings. The victim's plight often went unnoticed as they were alone, or poorly supervised, when the incident occurred. Apnoeic hypoxia appeared to have been associated with at least 12.5% of the deaths. The main disabling injuries were asphyxia (40%) and cardiac incidents (35%). CONCLUSION: Human factors, such as chronic health conditions, poor skills and inexperience and poor planning can play a substantial role throughout the chain of events leading to a snorkelling fatality. It is important to educate the community, doctors and dive industry professionals about potential problems associated with the interaction between certain health-related conditions, especially cardiovascular conditions, and snorkelling. Close supervision is strongly recommended for inexperienced snorkellers due to their likely poor skills, as well as for experienced breath-hold divers due to the potential for apnoeic hypoxia. Copyright: This article is the copyright of the authors who grant Diving and Hyperbaric Medicine a non-exclusive licence to publish the article in electronic and other forms.
INTRODUCTION: The aim of this study was to identify characteristics of victims of fatal snorkelling and breath-hold diving accidents in Australia from 2001-2013, inclusive, to determine underlying factors and risks associated with such activities and inform appropriate countermeasures. METHODS: The National Coronial Information System (NCIS) was searched to identify snorkelling and breath-hold diving-related cases reported to Australian coroners for the years 2001-2013, inclusive. Coronial data in the form of findings, witness and police reports, medical histories and autopsies were collected and collated, and descriptive statistics were used to analyse these data. A chain of events analysis was used to determine the likely sequence of events. RESULTS: There were 175 identified snorkelling-related fatalities during the study period. Most victims were middle-aged males (mean age 49 years). Pre-existing health conditions were possible contributors to 41% of the deaths, the main being ischaemic heart disease. The majority of deaths occurred in Queensland in inexperienced snorkellers, often in commercial settings. The victim's plight often went unnoticed as they were alone, or poorly supervised, when the incident occurred. Apnoeic hypoxia appeared to have been associated with at least 12.5% of the deaths. The main disabling injuries were asphyxia (40%) and cardiac incidents (35%). CONCLUSION:Human factors, such as chronic health conditions, poor skills and inexperience and poor planning can play a substantial role throughout the chain of events leading to a snorkelling fatality. It is important to educate the community, doctors and dive industry professionals about potential problems associated with the interaction between certain health-related conditions, especially cardiovascular conditions, and snorkelling. Close supervision is strongly recommended for inexperienced snorkellers due to their likely poor skills, as well as for experienced breath-hold divers due to the potential for apnoeic hypoxia. Copyright: This article is the copyright of the authors who grant Diving and Hyperbaric Medicine a non-exclusive licence to publish the article in electronic and other forms.
Authors: John Lippmann; Christopher Lawrence; Andrew Fock; Thomas Wodak; Scott Jamieson; Richard Harris; Douglas Walker Journal: Diving Hyperb Med Date: 2015-09 Impact factor: 0.887
Authors: John Lippmann; Christopher Lawrence; Andrew Fock; Scott Jamieson; Richard Harris Journal: Diving Hyperb Med Date: 2016-12 Impact factor: 0.887
Authors: John Lippmann; Douglas Walker; Chris Lawrence; Andrew Fock; Thomas Wodak; Richard Harris; Scott Jamieson Journal: Diving Hyperb Med Date: 2013-03 Impact factor: 0.887
Authors: Jacqueline Müller-Nordhorn; Rebecca Muckelbauer; Heike Englert; Ulrike Grittner; Hendrike Berger; Frank Sonntag; Heinz Völler; Christof Prugger; Karl Wegscheider; Hugo A Katus; Stefan N Willich Journal: PLoS One Date: 2014-03-26 Impact factor: 3.240