Biogenic Synthesis of Graphitic Carbon Nitride for Photocatalytic Degradation of Organic Dyes.

A simple approach of template growth of graphitic-carbon nitride (g-CN), a polymeric unit consisting of C, N, O, and H elements derived from extracts of green plant Aloe vera, which are rich in several chemical constituents, has been successfully experimented in this work. Comparing several other methods used for synthesizing g-CN involving a large amount of toxic components, here, we propose the simplest route economically and environmentally highly viable for near future. Green plants are highly rich in natural carbon and nitrogen compounds, such as acemannan, glucose, aloin, protein, etc. Way before g-CN research, many carbon-based materials have been synthesized for multifunctional properties, but g-CN has much benefit over them due to the presence of elements such as C, N, O, and H, thus making it electron-rich. Multifunctional properties of graphitic-carbon nitride interface bonding as a supercapacitor or as a metal-free catalyst thus help degrade dyes. Violet-blue broad band emission was even noticed when excited at 240 nm via C-C bonding (π-π* transition) in the absorption band with an extinction coefficient of ∼104 M-1 cm-1. With our research, we want to pave new ways of synthesizing such materials present in our nature in a biological form, which can protect our environment, thus causing less harm to mankind.

Introduction

An insatiable demand for energy by humans has to be soon satisfied by replacing it with other ways of harvesting energy. Problems related to the shortage of energy and environmental decay are paving way for considering strategies to utilize solar energy resources efficiently and effectively.[1] In the last few decades, several inorganic materials as a catalytic material for dye degradation and hydrogen production from water under light irradiation have been synthesized using various techniques. Such materials are metal species used for energy conversion produced chemically.[2−4] Like TiO2-based materials for photocatalysts, which have been modified by incorporating several other materials such as gold and carbon nitride, which increase the surface area, leading to an increase in adsorption due to enhanced active sites on the surface of the TiO2.[5,6] For devising metal-free materials with such applications, attention was made toward graphitic carbon nitride, a new catalyst that is metal-free with a suitable band gap for the wide optical regime, having unique optical, electronic, photocatalytic, and other properties. Graphitic carbon nitride is a polymeric semiconductor mainly composed of C, O, and N, which is generally environmentally friendly and, due to covalent C–N bonds, is highly stable both thermally (up to 600 °C) and chemically.[7] Several investigations have been done from nonporous to mesoporous and 2D- to 1D-type graphitic carbon nitride that can help increase and modulate the photocatalytic properties.[8,9] Unfortunately, as-prepared graphitic carbon nitride has low photocatalytic efficiency due to a low surface area and low e––h+ carrier generation when light is irradiated upon it.[10] To overcome this issue, several methods were developed to design the nanoarchitecture of bare graphitic carbon nitride with soft and hard template approaches, functionalizing them at an atomic level and modifying them electronically at energy levels.[11] One way to overcome these issues is novel biosynthetic routes that are explored using green plant extracts that are even environmentally friendly.[12−16] In Table , we have compared the bioroute (using Aloe vera gel)-synthesized graphitic carbon nitride with the literature (research done in the last 2–3 years). These methods help in controlling the growth of crystal and its morphology. Aloe vera is a widely used plant for its medicinal value consisting of phytochemicals such as acemannan, aloin, protein, glucose, etc. Aloe vera and such other green plants have low cost and are easily available as a substitution to hazardous (toxic) chemicals.[17]

Table 1

Comparison of g-C2N Synthesized Using Aloe vera Gel with Literature Findings

graphitic carbon nitride	method	surface area (m2/g)	pore size (nm)	volume Vp (cm3/g)	band gap (eV)	degradation efficiency (%)
g-C3N4	hydrothermal	185	5.8	0.96	2.7	70
g-C3N4	urea	38	50–100		2.8–3.0	20 (CO2 reduction)
g-C3N4	facile (polymer)	14	16	0.06	2.7	90
g-C2N	green (Aloe vera)	12.8	3.3	0.035	3.9	100

Owing to the recent demands of 2D (two-dimensional) nanosheets due to its special optical, electrical, catalytic, and sensing properties, it has become an emerging field. Graphene is one of the well-known carbon sheets that have good chemical and thermal stability and good electronic properties and provide a larger surface area. It usually consists of an atomic-layer-thick planar sheet consisting of a sp2-bonded carbon layer.[18−24] Analogous to graphene is graphene oxide having C–O moieties obtained by chemical treatment of graphite, either dissolving in water or other organic/inorganic solvents. The attachment of oxygen to carbon is via functional groups that are exhibited at the edge or basal planes of the graphene sheet.[25] These functional groups help in the interaction of other materials with graphene sheet by charge transfer-tuning its electronic, catalytic, and optical properties. In recent years, the study of graphene oxide-based nanomaterials has become popular, particularly in the field of electrochemical applications.[26] The importance of such nanomaterials in this field is relevant as compared to graphene due to its better results.[27] Reducing graphitic carbon nitride to graphene oxide by simply washing it using organic solvents such as acetone was even demonstrated in our research. Here, we propose a facile method of biogenic synthesis by simply burning the Aloe vera extract using camphor (green fuel agent) in a vacuum condition. Thus, the obtained pristine powder was annealed at 600 °C in a vacuum furnace to remove excess amorphous carbon. This method is promisingly more effective in a large-scale for next-generation nanotechnology and materials revolution. Further, the powders were analyzed using XRD, FTIR, Raman, SEM, and TEM and then employed to study various properties.

Results and Discussion

Model Reactions and Growth of Formation of Small g-C2N Template

As shown in Scheme a, Aloe vera leaves have unique toxicological and biological properties since our history of usage in cosmetics; wound/burn healing promoters; anti-inflammatory, antiprotozoal, and ultraviolet radiation protectors; and several others.[11]Aloe vera gel contains various constituents such as glucose, protein, acemannan, amino acid, aloin, etc. having C, O, N, and H elements. It mainly contains two parts, flesh and gel; the inner gel can be taken out by simply peeling the outer surface and etching the gel inside the green leaves, releasing nectar having a major product: a gel dispersed in an ample amount of water (≥98 wt %) of a light green liquid. The nectar was then cleaned free from any outer fleshes as we had to use only the gel as a medium in a way it forms a biotemplate of pristine g-C2N, as follows. So, the obtained gel was dried in air and burnt with camphor (Scheme b), which itself is a biofuel, in a vacuum furnace for 10 min at 250 °C. The powder formed as the end product (Scheme c) contained a large amount of amorphous soot such as carbon that was removed by annealing the sample at 600 °C for 2 h in a vacuum furnace. As shown in Scheme c, the pristine g-C2N is brownish in color, which soon turned blackish upon annealing at 600 °C, as shown in Scheme d. Let us not confuse this g-C2N with g-C3N4 as, here, two atoms of carbon bond to one nitrogen atom. Scheme e,f shows the polycondensation reactions occurring where monomers having two functional groups (OCN and OH groups) form a chain-like network by a chemical reaction via successive bonding (van der Waals force exists between the graphitic layer and carbon nitride). This is akin to g-C2N network bonding of C and N elements via O and H elements, thus forming the scaffold of the whole structure, as shown in Scheme g,h, forming a template-like growth of carbon nitride over graphitic sheets of carbon. A usual triazine-based pattern of g-C2N is shown in Scheme i, where a chain of a monomeric unit forms a bonded polymer via C, N, and H elements. At room temperature, graphitic carbon nitride is a layered structure material where van der Waals force acts on to hold the stacked layers of covalent C–N bonds. Thus, each layer is composed of tri-s-triazine units that are connected with polymeric amino groups. This tri-s-triazine ring kind of structure provides the polymer unit chemical stability in both alkaline and acidic media and high thermal stability up to 600 °C temperature in air.[14]Scheme j shows how the bonds (van der Waals force) present between graphitic sheets and carbon nitride weaken at 600 °C and break completely when annealed above it in Scheme k.

Scheme 1

Preparation of Aloe vera Extract and Structure of Graphitic Carbon Nitride

(a) Main constituents of Aloe vera plant, which was (b) burnt, forming (c) as-prepared g-CN annealed at (d) 600 °C (photos were captured in a laboratory by the first author); (e) benzene group with carbon nitride and hydroxyl functional groups forming (f) a polymeric unit of g-CN; (g) reactions inside the polymeric unit (removal of water) with (h) a formation of chain-like graphitic carbon nitride; (k) triazine-based pattern of graphitic carbon nitride; and (i, j) graphitic CN chain breaking down at ≥600 °C.

X-ray Diffraction and Phonons in Small g-C2N Template Nanostructures

g-C2N is preferentially grown in small template nanostructures of (131) facets exhibiting a modified XRD pattern of a well-known g-C2N cubic (c) crystal structure (Pa-3 space group[28]). For example, a typical XRD pattern in Figure a,b from as-burnt and annealed g-C2N at 600 °C for 2 h in vacuum has markedly tailored peak positions and intensities relative to those of bulk g-C2N prepared in a solid-state reaction.[28] It contains a part of oxygen that bonds the graphitic layer to the carbon nitride nanostructure. A normalized value Ip = 100 of a maximum peak intensity arises in the (131) peak at an interplanar spacing d131 = 0.3178 nm instead of the (111) peak at 0.6224 nm in the bulk sample. Here, one prominent peak that is marked as (210) with an interplanar spacing d220 = 0.4244 nm shows a cubic phase, which grows over amorphous graphite with a small increase in lattice parameters. A polymorphic (cubic to hexagonal phase) c → h change occurs in a bared g-C2N on a surface layer upon release. In Table are given d, Ip, and (hkl) values in XRD peaks observed in the samples. The d values calculated by average lattice parameters a = 1.0205 nm, b = 1.0514 nm, and c = 1.1184 nm reproduce the observed values within a deviation of ±0.0005 nm (under an error in the measured values) in the major peaks of the as-burnt sample. A template of graphitized C-sp2 layer adapts its lattice parameters due to surface force exerted by the C–N functional groups so as it has a decreased lattice volume V′ = 1.2501 nm3 (density ρ′ = 1.213 g-cm3) for the annealed sample and lattice volume V = 1.1999 nm3 (density ρ = 1.264 g-cm3) for as-burnt g-C2N over a bulk value Vb = 1.2531 nm3 (ρb = 1.210 g·cm3). Upon annealing, the as-burnt sample causes the graphitized layer to desorb off gradually, thus showing a decrease in the intensity of peaks (broadening occurs) due to surface C–N functional group reordering. Thus, a (220) peak in the as-burnt sample depresses upon heating the sample at 600 °C, as shown in Table .

Figure 1

XRD patterns of (a) as-burnt and (b) annealed g-C2N at 600 °C for 2 h in air from an Aloe vera gel and (c) JCPDS file.

Table 2

Interplanar Spacings (d) and Relative Intensities (Ip) in XRD Peaks Observed for As-Burnt and Annealed g-C2N at 600 °C for 2 h in Air from an Aloe vera Gel

as-prepared						annealed
dhkl (nm)						dhkl (nm)
observed	calculated	Ipa	h	k	l	observed	calculated	Ipa	h	k	l
0.4249b	0.4244b	22	2	2	0	0.3944b	0.3937b	40	2	2	0
0.3340	0.3344	49	0	3	1	0.3474	0.3471	4	0	1	3
0.3178	0.3178	100	1	3	1	0.3228	0.3228	100	1	3	1
0.3063	0.3063	39	2	2	2	0.3109	0.3109	88	2	2	2
0.2849	0.2851	13	1	3	2	0.2875	0.2870	13	3	1	2
0.2695	0.2696	9	1	0	4	0.2758	0.2753	9	0	0	4
0.2509	0.2513	5	3	0	3	0.2544	0.2549	12	3	0	3
0.2314	0.2317	10	1	4	2	0.2331	0.2335	18	4	1	2
0.2237	0.2237	44	3	3	2	0.2285	0.2285	72	3	3	2
0.2112	0.2116	22	3	1	4	0.2128	0.2130	21	3	1	4
0.2019	0.2018	5	1	2	5	0.1942	0.1944	23	5	2	1
0.1909	0.1909	11	2	2	5	0.1900	0.1901	22	2	2	5
0.1819	0.1816	4	3	4	3	0.1841	0.1842	28	4	3	3

The d values are calculated according to the average lattice parameters given in Table .

The Ip values are normalized over a maximum value of 100.

Table 3

Lattice Parameters for g-C2N of Small Crystallitesa

g-C2N	a (nm)	b (nm)	c (nm)	D (nm)	V (nm3)	ρ (g·cm–3)	ε (%)
as-prepared	1.0205	1.0514	1.1184	12	1.1999	1.264	0.864
600 °C	1.0629	1.0682	1.1010	14	1.2501	1.213	0.447
bulk	1.0781	1.0781	1.0781		1.2531	1.210

The values are reported from JCPDS file 01-075-1341 in ref (28).

XRD patterns of (a) as-burnt and (b) annealed n class="Chemical">g-C2N at 600 °C for 2 h in air from an Aloe vera gel and (c) JCPDS file.

The C–N moieties arrange itself via oxygen and hydrogen groups present at the surface of the graphitic carbon sheet. Some functional groups such as OH presented at ∼3400 cm–1 due to intermolecular H bonds could be easily removed by heating the samples at 100 °C before taking the IR spectra. In Figure a, the five phonon bands shown at ∼2360, 1715, 1615, 1438, and 1065 cm–1 have been assigned to C≡N stretching, C=O stretching, C=N stretching, benzene ring, and C–N stretching vibrations.[10,29,30] When g-C2N is annealed at 600 °C for 2 h, IR phonon bands in Figure b from 600–1800 cm–1 disappear while thinning g-C2N in a sample by removal of functional groups from the surface of template graphitic carbon. The band group assigned at 1428 cm–1 is a benzene-like carbon ring as it reproduces a 2D network over a graphitic carbon in a co-bonded surface layer. The IR bands of annealed samples can be well compared with those of carbon dots formed by washing the as-prepared sample, as shown in Figure c, which connotes the clear picture of assignments (functional groups) to each band present.

Figure 2

FTIR spectra of the (a) as-prepared and (b) annealed g-C2N from Aloe vera gel at 600 °C for 2 h in air and (c) the spectra after washing (a) in acetone (inset).

FTIR spectra of the (a) as-prepared and (b) annealed n class="Chemical">g-C2N from Aloe vera gel at 600 °C for 2 h in air and (c) the spectra after washing (a) in acetone (inset).

The phonons of wide group C=C stretching are seen in Figure in the Raman spectrum in the graphitic carbon nitride g-C2N where C-sp2 is bonding coherently with a carbon nitride group forming a template. As seen for a single D-band of 1329 cm–1 known in graphene,[31] two distinct overlapping bands are displaced one another at 1310 and 1415 cm–1 in a group in the as-burnt g-C2N sample (a bit shifted to 1350 and 1395 cm–1 in the annealed sample), similarly in two major graphitized carbon bands assignments framed on C2N facets—most likely (131) and (031), as seen in template growth of g-C2N plates as in the HRTEM images. Similarly, Raman bands expand in the single-phonon band with a high-intensity G-band (of 1591 cm–1 in graphene) with an average frequency of 1580 cm–1 (a bit shifted to 1585 cm–1 in the annealed sample) as a result of graphitized carbon template trying to oscillate coherently to the C–N functional groups bonded via oxygen. Further, the ID/IG ratio has grown further from 0.80 for as-prepared g-C2N to 0.85 in account of an induced local microstrain in the conjoint structure, as evident from a large γ = 0.86% value analyzed for the samples in terms of inhomogeneous broadening in the XRD peaks in Table . Even a core–shell nanostructure of C-Fe3O4 shows only a single G-band at ∼1590 cm–1 when the shell thickness of the nanostructure is varied.[32] The part of the graphitized template bonded to the carbon nitride functional group via oxygen tries to release and rebind upon annealing at 600 °C, reducing the intensity of D and G phonon bands in a wide group with a shift to higher frequencies by smaller values. When the as-burnt g-C2N is probed to measure at higher frequencies, the Raman phonon bands generated D′, 2D, and G + D at 2387, 2616, and 2883 cm–1, respectively.

Figure 3

Raman spectra of the (a) as-prepared and (b) annealed g-C2N using an Aloe vera gel.

Raman spectra of the (a) as-prepared and (b) annealed n class="Chemical">g-C2N using an Aloe vera gel.

To find out the chemical state of g-C2N, we probed in to comprehend the details of XPS by analyzing the spectrum in Figure a. The quality and composition of samples are well shown through XPS spectra. The oxidation states of carbon, nitrogen, and oxygen elements in g-C2N were obtained in Figure b–d. These XPS spectra were calibrated using the C1s peak at 284.6 eV. The existence of the carbon peak was attributed to the adsorption of the residue of organics present in the Aloe vera gel during the synthesis process. The carbon element in the g-C2N sample gives two broad peaks at ∼287.6 (285.3), and 283.7 eV for C=O (2p1/2) (C–O), and C–C (marked with 2p3/2). The asymmetric XPS of O1s shows that several oxygen moieties are present on the surface region; lattice oxygen centered at 529 and 530 eV is assigned for the OH– group, 532 eV for the O2– group, and 533 eV for H2O. The nitrogen N1s element present in g-C2N shows one band assigned to C–N–C group centered at 398 eV and another at 400 eV assigned to the N–H group.[7,20]

Figure 4

XPS spectra of the (a) as-prepared g-C2N for (b) carbon, (c) oxygen, and (d) nitrogen elements.

XPS spectra of the (a) as-prepared n class="Chemical">g-C2N for (b) carbon, (c) oxygen, and (d) nitrogen elements.

The local g-C2N microstructure is refined, thereby releasing the template graphitized carbon with embedded carbon nitride nanodots bonded via functional groups. In Figure a,b, FESEM images show how tiny nanodots as small as 10–50 nm embed the surface of the graphitized carbon layer, forming a template. Thus, embedding as a “second-level hierarchical structure” as a composite template with a thickness of 15–20 nm. Figure c displays the plate-like sheets uniformly separated when seen in a microscale range of FESEM. When this image was magnified as in Figure d, it clearly shows the embedded nanodots on the surface layer bonding via functional groups to the graphitized carbon sheets. As soon this graphitized carbon layer is heated or washed with organic solvents (acetone), it etches out, leaving nanodots of the carbon with templates as rectangular prisms/plates (w = 20–40 nm width and ϑ = 10–20 nm depth), which contain a pure carbon layer that is displayed as a bright outline with a thickness of 10–20 nm, as seen in the FESEM images in Figure d. The stage of template growth of pure g-C2N nanostructures has a better stability in a rigid C-sp2 template layer bonded via C–N–O bonds in a regular two-dimensional network. Such g-C2N cross-link through C–N–O bonds as a second-level hierarchical structure in a small nanotemplate structure, as seen in FESEM images in Figure . Similarly, HRTEM images in Figure a–d show a close view of template plates of graphitized carbon bonded to surface carbon nitride nanodots via functional groups of C–O entities, with a magnified region in inset of Figure a. Figure b,c displays the carbon plate-embedding nanodots of g-C2N of 20–55 nm in the dispersed microstructure. Exfoliated graphitized plates in the form of films (150–250 nm wide and 300–600 nm long) are seen in the lattice image of HRTEM as in Figure a,b, which looks transparent with a few nanometer thickness. Figure a shows the layers of graphite sheets more in region A (darker) and less in region B (brighter) similarly in Figure b, which exhibits thin sheets of graphite-like carbon grafted with small carbon nitride crystallites marked as A and B on carbon sheet C, which has a d-spacing of 0.3344 nm for the (343) crystallographic plane (fringe formed due to interference of light refracted from carbon nitride lattice and graphite layers). Thus, from the literature, O2– inclusion as in a graphitized C–O network markedly gets stretched to over a d-spacing of 0.3356 nm for the (002) plane in the pure graphite.[33,34] A C-sp2 graphitic network thus expands via co-bonding with N2– and O2– on carbon plates, which adapts concurrently as foresaid using Raman and FTIR bands in softer phonons. Figure c shows the carbon nitride crystallites of sizes 20–50 nm bonding to the graphite layered sheets of carbon. Figure d shows the lattice image of g-CN where a boundary separates the amorphous graphite sheet with carbon nitride crystallites with a d-spacing of 0.1816 nm of the (343) crystallographic plane. Some larger lattice entities found in FESEM images become opaque, which are not easy to be seen in HRTEM images. Figure e,f shows the SAED pattern of graphitic carbon nitride (small g-C2N plates/prisms (w = 10–20 nm)) having concentric rings, indicating that the carbon nitride particles are well dispersed and bonded in a polycrystalline form. It clearly exhibits from the pattern of (332) and (343) arrays with spacing values of d332 = 0.2240 nm and d343 = 0.1816 nm, stacking ⊥ to a [131] zone axis, as studied using an e– beam incident facing its (303) facet.

Figure 5

FESEM images of (a, b) as-prepared and (c–e) annealed g-C2N at 600 °C for 2 h in air.

Figure 6

(a–c) HRTEM images, (d) lattice image, and (e, f) SAED pattern of as-prepared and annealed g-C2N at 600 °C for 2 h in air.

FESEM images of (a, b) as-prepared and (c–e) annealed n class="Chemical">g-C2N at 600 °C for 2 h in air.

(a–c) HRTEM images, (d) lattice image, and (e, f) SAED pattern of as-prepared and annealed n class="Chemical">g-C2N at 600 °C for 2 h in air.

Optical Properties of Small g-C2N Template Nanostructures

The insets of Figure a,b show the Tauc plots of the as-prepared and annealed g-C2N at 600 °C, respectively, to manifest the band gap Eg. Here, (αhν)1/ versus energy hν in eV was plotted, where α is the normalized value of (in cm–1), h is denoted as Planck’s constant (6.626 × 10–34 J·s), and ν is the frequency of light. The following values of the exponent r denote the nature of the transition:[35−37]r = 1/2 for direct allowed transitions; r = 3/2 for direct forbidden transitions; r = 2 for indirect allowed transitions; r = 3 for indirect forbidden transitions.

Figure 7

Electronic absorption spectra and Tauc plots for (a) as-prepared and (b) annealed g-C2N at 600 °C.

Electronic absorption spectra and Tauc plots for (a) n class="Chemical">as-prepared and (b) annealed g-C2N at 600 °C.

The outcome plot of the analysis shows a distinct linear region that specifies the onset of absorption. Thus, we need to extrapolate the linear regime to the abscissa hν by reproducing the energy of the optical band gap of the g-C2N nanostructures for all its samples. The band gap of as-prepared g-C2N comes to be ∼3.9 eV, which increases to 4.12 eV upon annealing at 600 °C, thus showing a quantum confinement and blue-shift. The value ε varies in relation to absorbance, while the C value controls the solute–solute and solvent–solute interactions. The size and morphology of structures in the solute along with the solvent determine the interactions to the C value. For example, in the extinction coefficient of the sample (as-prepared g-C2N (molecular weight = 38), the concentration C is 0.1 mg in 10 mL, (optical length of quartz cell) is 10 mm = 1 cm, and absorbance A = 1.31 at 263 nm is calculated below, which comes to be ∼5 × 103 M–1 L cm–1, while this extinction coefficient for g-C2N annealed at 600 °C decreases to lower values of spin-allowed transitions of ∼6.9 × 102 M–1 L cm–1 with a hike in the band gap.

It is interesting to learn that the synthesized as-prepared and annealed (at 600 °C) g-C2N samples extend the strong emission in ultraviolet as well as along the visible regions. Unusually, the bands were not observed with significant intensity in the absorption spectra. For example, Figure a,b compares light excitation and emission spectra measured for the as-prepared, annealed, and washed samples of g-C2N using a pulse xenon lamp as a light source. The present emission spectra were measured by exciting the samples at λex = 240 nm, while the excitation spectra were monitored corresponding to the emission band at λem = 512 nm in finding the optical origin of these bands of the electronic transitions. Two broad groups of emission bands appear over 300–580 nm and 580–900 nm in a common λex = 240 nm excitation, while those of the excitation spectra appear in a strong group in the extreme UV region over 240 to 340 nm with rather weak bands over longer wavelengths of 310–430 nm on common λem = 512 nm irradiation by the xenon lamp. As described elsewhere, the blue light emission near 430 nm ascribes to the C–C transitions, and the red emission near 675 nm ascribes to the C–O transitions of the g-C2N lattice. A strong excitation band prevails below 240 nm due a charge-transfer transition between O2– and C2+ and the band gap transition in the g-C2N crystallites. Eventually, the π → nπ* promotes both the emission (model inset of Figure ) and excitation bands over the entire regions, which is a demand nowadays in tuning the light absorption, emission, and associated properties in this kind of hybrid nanocomposite.

Figure 8

(a) Excitation spectra corresponding to λem = 512 nm and (b) emission spectra recorded after exciting the samples at 240 nm from a xenon lamp for g-C2N before (black and blue lines) and after (red line) burning out a residual carbon.

Photocatalytic Mechanism and Degradation of MB Dye

Photocatalytic mechanism can be well explained in four steps. The first step is the absorption of light (i.e., photons) via photocatalysts (graphitic carbon nitride), and then the electrons get excited from a valence band to a conduction band. The second step is the result of electron–hole pair recombination that occurs either in the core of the materials or on the surface of it, that is, related to the release of energy in the form of light emission (luminescence) or as heat of the lattice. The third step can be attributed to the recombination of charges (electrons and holes) as the important process that controls the overall photocatalyst efficiency after the absorption of photons (light energy). Charges (electrons or holes) that migrate onto the surface layer of the photocatalysts do not go through the recombination and may indulge in other oxidation and reduction reactions with adsorbents such as oxygen, water, and any other inorganic or organic species. We can postulate the reactions in four steps as follows:[38] step 1, absorption of light (photocatalysts + hν → photocatalysts × (e– + h+)); step 2, recombination (e– + h+ → hν + heat); step 3, reduction of adsorbents + e– → adsorbent–; step 4, oxidation of adsorbents + h+ → adsorbent+.

A methylene blue dye with a concentration of 2.6 × 10–6 M was well mixed with g-C2N photocatalysts of ∼1.6 mg with a final concentration of ∼5 × 10–5 M. This material acts as a sensitizer for the light irradiated to stimulate the whole mechanism due to its electronic structure that is formed by a completely/partially filled valence band (VB) and a vacant conduction band (CB). One of the best methods that can be used for applications such as degradation of hazardous pollutants of waste produced from industries, production of hydrogen gas, purification of air, and antibacterial activity[38−40] is the photocatalytic mechanism. When light is irradiated (photons) on the surface-graphitized g-C2N hybrid catalyst, if this energy is equivalent to or more than band gap energy, then valence band electrons are excited to the conduction band, causing hole formation in the valence band. These holes could oxidize donor molecules and react with water molecules to form hydroxyl ions. The electrons present in the conduction band could actively react with dissolved oxygen ions to form superoxide ions, leading to redox reactions. Now, the electrons and holes present in CB and VB can go under the oxidation and reduction process with any species absorbed on the surface of the catalyst. The degradation of methylene blue dye without a catalyst in the presence of UV and visible light shows a marked degradation of ∼12–13%, as shown in Figure a. Then, the performance of the photocatalytic degradation of g-C2N powders (as-prepared and annealed at 600 °C) was studied by considering methylene blue (MB) as the target dye. Photocatalytic studies were done under UV (24 W; intensity, 400 lux; λ < 400 nm) and visible light bulb irradiation at the sample surface under stirring condition. In Figure b, as the UV and visible light irradiating time t reaches 60 min, the methylene blue dye in the as-prepared sample decays rapidly until a minimum C/Co ≅ 100%. A nearly two times larger dye lasts in the annealed sample under both UV and visible light irradiation, decaying much slowly at ∼60%. The graphitic surface layer in the as-prepared sample promptly favors its catalytic feature, which breaks down at 600 °C (van der Waals force weakens between the graphitic layer and carbon nitride groups), causing slow degradation of dye. A reasonably larger degradation rate constant k = 0.015 min–1 (against 0.003 min–1 in the annealed graphitic carbon nitride) thus prolongs in a pseudo-first-order reaction in a nonlinear regression of ln(C/Co) = −kt over t in Figure c in this example. Other samples involve much lower k-values as determined, assuming the linear plots in Figure c.

Figure 9

Methylene blue dye degradation (a) without and (b) with as-prepared and annealed g-C2N under UV and visible light irradiation. (c) Kinetic rate of degradation using g-C2N.

Methylene blue dye degradation (a) without and (b) with n class="Chemical">as-prepared and annealed g-C2N under UV and visible light irradiation. (c) Kinetic rate of degradation using g-C2N.

Conclusions

A biogenic template of graphitized carbon species bonded to surface carbon nitride via functional groups dispersed uniformly in a green Aloe vera gel has been explored to synthesize stable g-C2N template hybrid nanostructure reactions in its small tissues at moderate temperature, a facile biogenic synthesis. An Aloe vera-obtained green gel was dried in air, then finely dispersed and pulverized in camphor, and burnt in a vacuum furnace at 250 °C for 10 min. The rate of production was obtained at ∼0.33%. Finally, the so-obtained 20 mg powder was pulverized using mortar and pestle to uniformly finely divide the powder. A fine biocomplex is grown in situ in the synthesis with multifunctional properties. It thins down the graphitic layer as plates when the as-prepared g-C2N sample was heated ≥600 °C in a vacuum furnace for 2 h. The results were characterized using XRD, HRTEM, SAED, and lattice images of the g-C2N samples obtained of small template nanostructures. As seen for a D-band, two distinct overlapping bands are displaced on one another at 1310 and 1415 cm–1 in a group in the as-burnt g-C2N sample (1329 cm–1 known in graphene), while a single phonon band with a high intensity G-band (of 1591 cm–1 in graphene) with an average frequency of 1580 cm–1 is displaced in a group in the as-burnt g-C2N sample (a bit shifted to 1350 cm–1 in the annealed sample). Last, optical and photocatalytic properties were measured in comparison to microstructures of g-C2N template nanostructures.

Experimental Section

Synthesis of Biogenic g-CN and C–O Moieties Template Growth

Regarding the biogenic template growth of graphitic carbon nitride using the self-combustion route of small tissues in a green Aloe vera gel, here, carbon nitride bonded to surface-layered graphitic sheets was synthesized as follows. A fresh gel of around 6 g was extracted from the inner parts of green leaves of an Aloe vera plant (from a garden at IIT-Kharagpur), and any immiscible fleshes were washed away by using a specific filter (made of steel) with 50–100 μm pores. It was then dried and burnt in a vacuum furnace using camphor as a fuel agent at 250 °C for 10 min. The rate of production was obtained around 0.33%. Finally, the so-obtained 20 mg powder was pulverized using mortar and pestle to uniformly finely divide the powder. A hybrid-phase g-C2N emerged after the organics had been burnt out in a self-propagating spontaneous combustion in camphor (a fuel). It was heated at 600 °C in a vacuum furnace for 2 h to remove impurities of carbon (soot) obtained while burning with camphor. We even derived graphene oxide by simply washing as-prepared g-C2N in acetone, which certainly etches out the outer surface of g-C2N; the only ones remaining were graphene-layered sheets with functional groups on it, which are also called as C–O moieties.

Measurements of the g-C2N Structure and Properties

The XRD patterns were scanned over 20° to 80° of diffraction angle 2θ by using an X-ray diffractometer (X’PertPro PANalytical), with an X-ray beam of Cu Kα of λ = 0.15410 nm in wavelength, which delineate a semi-crystalline g-C2N of as-burnt and annealed powders. The data were collected slowly at small 2θ intervals under 0.01° in resolving the weak intensity peaks. Size, morphology, and surface topology in the g-C2N samples were studied with field-emission scanning electron microscopy (FESEM) using a ZEISS EVO 60 FESEM at 5–20 kV acceleration voltages. High-resolution transmission electron microscopic (HRTEM) images, selected-area electron diffraction (SAED), and lattice images of the samples mounted on a carbon-coated copper grid were studied using an analytical TEM of FEI Tecnai G2 20S-TWIN operating at 200 kV. The C-sp2, as a breed of a 2D network (amorphous) on coherent g-C2N facets, exhibits multiple D- and G-bands in Raman spectra over 1200 to 1800 cm–1 as studied by exciting the samples at 514.5 nm by an Ar+ ion laser. Binding energies (Eb) in the XPS bands were calibrated with the adventitious C1s at 284.6 eV. The photocatalytic performance of powders (as-prepared and annealed at 600 °C) was studied by considering methylene blue as the target dye.

The absorbance A states how much radiation an object absorbs of particular λ values in such transitions. The Beer–Lambert relation describes A of a sample of a specific concentration through which a continuous beam of light is allowed to travel. In a logarithmic scale used in the absorption spectrophotometer, the realistic value is the optical length that is 10 mm, and C is the concentration of the solution (0.1 mg of sample in 10 mL of distilled water) obtained from , where ε is the extinction coefficient, also known as absorption coefficient with a unit M–1 L cm–1. Photocatalytic studies were done under UV (24 W; intensity, 400 lux; λ < 400 nm) and visible irradiation at the sample surface under stirring condition. Aqueous solutions of methylene blue with a concentration 5 × 10–5 M with a photocatalyst loading of 1 g/L were taken. The dispersions were equilibrated for dye adsorption on the photocatalyst surface for 30 min. During the degradation period, the dispersions were collected at regular intervals of 30 min in the case of UV light irradiation. To note down the extent of the degradation, the samples were centrifuged at 6000 rpm for 10 min to collect the so-far degraded dye solution. Using the PerkinElmer spectrophotometer, powder dispersed in distilled water (0.01 g L–1) was used to measure its light absorption spectrum (200–850 nm) relative to distilled water as a reference, using an Edinburgh FL spectrometer by a xenon lamp 900.