Dichotomous keys to the species of Solanum L. (Solanaceae) in continental Africa, Madagascar (incl. the Indian Ocean islands), Macaronesia and the Cape Verde Islands.

Solanum L. (Solanaceae) is one of the largest genera of angiosperms and presents difficulties in identification due to lack of regional keys to all groups. Here we provide keys to all 135 species of Solanum native and naturalised in Africa (as defined by World Geographical Scheme for Recording Plant Distributions): continental Africa, Madagascar (incl. the Indian Ocean islands of Mauritius, La Réunion, the Comoros and the Seychelles), Macaronesia and the Cape Verde Islands. Some of these have previously been published in the context of monographic works, but here we include all taxa. The paper is designed to be used in conjunction with the web resource Solanaceae Source (www.solanaceaesource.org) and hyperlinks provide access to online descriptions, synonymy and images (where available) of each species. All taxa treated and specimens seen are included in searchable Suppl. material 1, 2.

Introduction

L. () is one of the largest of angiosperm genera (Frodin 2004) with ca. 1,200 species distributed worldwide with species on all continents except Antarctica. The greatest species diversity in the genus occurs in the Neotropics (see Bohs 2005), but significant diversity also occurs in the Old World, with Africa and Australia particularly important areas for diversification (see Vorontsova and Knapp 2016; Echeverría-Londoño et al. 2018). Due to its large number of species and the number of introductions and cultivated taxa, is often an identification challenge for non-specialists. Recent completion of several large monographic treatments of the of Africa (e.g. Vorontsova and Knapp 2016; Knapp and Vorontsova 2016; Särkinen et al. 2018) as part of the US National Science Foundation funded Planetary Biodiversity Inventory project “PBI ” means we can now provide keys for the genus across the continent and for adjacent islands such as Madagascar and Macaronesia. Some of these have been published in the Open Access literature (e.g. Knapp 2013; Knapp and Vorontsova 2016; Särkinen et al. 2018), but the largest of these, treating the spiny solanums (Vorontsova and Knapp 2016) is not. Several species that are either naturalised (e.g. members of the Brevantherum Clade) or cultivated (tree tomatoes, pepinos, potatoes and tomatoes) in the region are also not treated as part of these monographic treatments, although complete species descriptions and photographs are provided on the web resource Source (www.solanaceaesource.org).

Here we provide dichotomous keys that include all groups and species (native, naturalised and widely cultivated; see Table 1 for species list) of occurring in continental Africa, Madagascar (incl. the Indian Ocean islands of Mauritius, La Réunion, the Comoros, and the Seychelles), Macaronesia and the Cape Verde Islands to facilitate identification across the region. Taxa occurring in each country in the region are shown in Table 2 and a map of diversity (all taxa) is presented in Figure 1. Keys to individual groups are also provided for the 135 species occurring in the region (see Table 1 and Appendix 1 for a species list). We hope that these keys will encourage collection and documentation of across Africa and uncover new distributions and perhaps new species for the region.

Table 1.

The 135 species of (native, naturalised and widely cultivated) occurring in Africa as defined by Brummitt (2001), with their places of original publication and clade membership as currently understood (Major Clades sensu Bohs 2005; minor clades are divisions within these sensu Bohs 2007; Stern et al. 2011; Vorontsova et al. 2103; Särkinen et al. 2015, 2018; Aubriot et al. 2016; Tepe et al. 2016).

Species	Place of original publication	Major Clade	Minor clade
Solanumaculeastrum Dunal	Prodr. [A. P. de Candolle] 13(1): 366. 1852.	Leptostemonum	Old World-Africa
Solanumaculeatissimum Jacq.	Collectanea [Jacquin] 1: 100. 1787 [‘1786’].	Leptostemonum	Acanthophora
Solanumadoense Hochst. ex A.Rich.	Tent. Fl. Abyss. 2: 105. 1850 [1851].	Leptostemonum	Old World-Africa
Solanumaethiopicum L.	Cent. Pl. 2: 10. 1756.	Leptostemonum	Old World-Africa
Solanumafricanum Mill.	Gard. Dict. ed. 8, no. 26. 1768.	African non-spiny (ANS)
Solanumagnewiorum Voronts.	Phytotaxa 10: 32. 2010.	Leptostemonum	Old World-Africa
Solanumagrarium Sendtn.	Fl. Bras. (Martius) 10: 68, fig. 5, 32–33. 1846.	Leptostemonum	Gardneri
Solanumaldabrense C.H.Wright	Kew Bull. 1894: 149. 1894.	Leptostemonum	Old World
Solanumamericanum Mill.	Gard. Dict. ed. 8, no. 5. 1768.	Morelloid	Black nightshade
Solanumanguivi Lam.	Tabl. Encycl. 2: 23. 1794.	Leptostemonum	Old World-Africa
Solanumanomalum Thonn.	Beskr. Guin. Pl. 126 1827.	Leptostemonum	Old World-Africa
Solanumarundo Mattei	Boll. Reale Orto Bot. Giardino Colon. Palermo 7: 188. 1908.	Leptostemonum	Old World-Africa
Solanumatropurpureum Schrank	Syll. Ratisb. 1: 200. 1824.	Leptostemonum	Acanthophora
Solanumaureitomentosum Bitter	Repert. Spec. Nov. Regni Veg. 11: 18. 1912.	Leptostemonum	Old World-Africa
Solanumbatoides D’Arcy & Rakot.	Fl. Madag., Fam. 176: 75. 1994.	Leptostemonum	Old World-Madagascar
Solanumbetaceum Cav.	Anales Hist. Nat. 1: 44. 1799.	Cyphomandra	Pachyphylla
Solanumbetroka D’Arcy & Rakot.	Fl. Madag., Fam. 176: 77. 1994.	African non-spiny (ANS)
Solanumbumeliifolium Dunal	Prodr. [A. P. de Candolle] 13(1): 292. 1852.	Leptostemonum	Old World-Madagascar
Solanumburchellii Dunal	Prodr. [A. P. de Candolle] 13(1): 291. 1852.	Leptostemonum	Old World-Africa
Solanumcampylacanthum Hochst. ex A.Rich.	Tent. Fl. Abyss. 2: 102. 1850.	Leptostemonum	Old World-Africa
Solanumcapense L.	Syst. ed. 10: 935. 1759.	Leptostemonum	Old World-Africa
Solanumcapsicoides All.	Auct. Syn. Meth. Stirp. Hort. Regii Taur. 64. 1773.	Leptostemonum	Acanthophora
Solanumcatombelense Peyr.	Sitzungsber. Kaiserl. Akad. Wiss., Math.-Naturwiss. Cl. 38: 576. 1860.	Leptostemonum	Old World-Africa
Solanumcerasiferum Dunal	Prodr. [A. P. de Candolle] 13(1): 365. 1852.	Leptostemonum	Old World-Africa
Solanumchenopodioides Lam.	Tabl. Encycl. 2: 18. 1794.	Morelloid	Black nightshade
Solanumchrysotrichum Schltdl.	Linnaea 19: 304. 1847.	Leptostemonum	Torva
Solanumcoagulans Forssk.	Fl. Aegypt.-Arab. 47. 1775.	Leptostemonum	Old World-Africa
Solanumcordatum Forssk.	Fl. Aegypt.-Arab. 47. 1775.	Leptostemonum	[not assigned]
Solanumcroatii D’Arcy & R.C.Keating	Phytologia 34: 282. 1976.	Leptostemonum	Old World-Madagascar
Solanumcyaneopurpureum De Wild.	Pl. Bequaert. 1: 425. 1922.	Leptostemonum	Old World-Africa
Solanumcymbalariifolium Chiov.	Boll. Soc. Bot. Ital. 1925: 107. 1925.	Leptostemonum	Old World-Africa
Solanumdasyphyllum Schumach. & Thonn.	Beskr. Guin. Pl. 126 [146]. 1827.	Leptostemonum	Old World-Africa
Solanumdennekense Dammer	Bot. Jahrb. Syst. 38: 57. 1905.	Leptostemonum	Old World-Africa
Solanumdiphyllum L.	Sp. Pl. 184. 1753.	Geminata
Solanumelaeagnifolium Cav.	Icon. 3: 22, tab. 243. 1795.	Leptostemonum	Elaeagnifolium
Solanumerianthum D.Don	Prodr. Fl. Nep. 96. 1825.	Brevantherum
Solanumerythracanthum Dunal	Prodr. [A. P. de Candolle] 13(1): 201. 1852.	Leptostemonum	Old World-Madagascar
Solanumforskalii Dunal	Hist. Nat. Solanum 237. 1813.	Leptostemonum	Old World-Africa
Solanumgiganteum Jacq.	Collectanea [Jacquin] 4: 125. 1791.	Leptostemonum	Old World-Africa
Solanumglabratum Dunal	Hist. Nat. Solanum 240. 1813.	Leptostemonum	Old World-Africa
Solanumgoetzei Dammer	Bot. Jahrb. Syst. 28: 473. 1900.	Leptostemonum	Old World-Africa
Solanumguineense L.	Sp. Pl. 184. 1753.	African non-spiny (ANS)
Solanumhastifolium Hochst. ex Dunal	Prodr. [A. P. de Candolle] 13(1): 284. 1852.	Leptostemonum	Old World-Africa
Solanumheinianum D’Arcy & R.C.Keating	Phytologia 34: 282. 1976.	Leptostemonum	Old World-Madagascar
Solanumherculeum Bohs	Plant Syst. Evol. 228: 44. 2001.	Normania
Solanumhumblotii Dammer	Bot. Jahrb. Syst. 38: 184. 1906.	African non-spiny (ANS)
Solanumhumile Lam.	Tabl. Encycl. 2: 23. 1794.	Leptostemonum	Old World-Africa
Solanumimamense Dunal	Prodr. [A. P. de Candolle] 13(1): 85. 1852.	African non-spiny (ANS)
Solanuminaequiradians Werderm.	Notizbl. Bot. Gart. Berlin-Dahlem 12: 90. 1934.	Leptostemonum	Old World-Africa
Solanumincanum L.	Sp. Pl. 188. 1753.	Leptostemonum	Old World-Africa
Solanuminsanum L.	Mant. 1: 46. 1767.	Leptostemonum	Old World-Tropical Asia
Solanumivohibe D’Arcy & Rakot.	Fl. Madag., Fam. 176: 97. 1994.	African non-spiny (ANS)
Solanumjubae Bitter	Bot. Jahrb. Syst. 54: 501. 1917.	Leptostemonum	Old World-Africa
Solanumlaciniatum Aiton	Hort. Kew. ed. 1, 1: 247. 1789.	Archaesolanum
Solanumlamprocarpum Bitter	Repert. Spec. Nov. Regni Veg. Beih. 16: 107. 1923.	Leptostemonum	Old World-Africa
Solanumlanzae J.-P.Lebrun & Stork	Candollea 50: 217. 1995.	Leptostemonum	Old World-Africa
Solanumlichtensteinii Willd.	Enum. Pl. (Willdenow) 1: 238. 1809.	Leptostemonum	Old World-Africa
Solanumlidii Sunding	Blyttia 24: 368. 1966.	Leptostemonum	Old World
Solanumlinnaeanum Hepper & P.-M.L. Jaeger	Kew Bull. 41: 435. 1986.	Leptostemonum	Old World-Africa
Solanumlitoraneum A.E.Gonç.	Kew Bull. 52(3): 703. 1997.	Leptostemonum	Old World-Africa
Solanumlycopersicum L.	Sp. Pl. 185. 1753.	Potato	Tomato
Solanummacracanthum A.Rich.	Tent. Fl. Abyss. 2: 106. 1850.	Leptostemonum	Old World-Africa
Solanummacrocarpon L.	Mant. Pl. Altera: 205. 1771.	Leptostemonum	Old World-Africa
Solanummacrothyrsum Dammer	Bot. Jahrb. Syst. 38: 185. 1906.	African non-spiny (ANS)
Solanummadagascariense Dunal	Prodr. [A. P. de Candolle] 13(1): 99. 1852.	African non-spiny (ANS)
Solanummahoriense D’Arcy & Rakot.	Ann. Missouri Bot. Gard. 73: 498. 1986.	Leptostemonum	Old World-Madagascar
Solanummalindiense Voronts.	Syst. Bot. 35: 904. 2010.	Leptostemonum	Old World-Africa
Solanummammosum L.	Sp. Pl. 187. 1753.	Leptostemonum	Acanthophora
Solanummarginatum L.f.	Suppl. 147. 1781.	Leptostemonum	Old World-Africa
Solanummauense Bitter	Repert. Spec. Nov. Regni Veg. Beih. 16: 42. 1923.	Leptostemonum	Old World-Africa
Solanummauritianum Scop.	Delic. Fl. Faun. Insubr. 3: 16. 1788.	Brevantherum
Solanummelastomoides C.H.Wright	Bull. Misc. Inform. Kew 1894: 128. 1894.	Leptostemonum	Old World-Africa
Solanummelongena L.	Sp. Pl. 186. 1753.	Leptostemonum	Old World-Tropical Asia
Solanummemphiticum J.F.Gmel.	Syst. Nat., ed. 13[bis] 2(1): 385. 1791	Morelloid	Black nightshade
Solanummuricatum Aiton	Hort. Kew, ed. 1, 1: 250. 1789.	Potato	Basarthrum
Solanummyoxotrichum Baker	J. Linn. Soc., Bot. 21: 426. 1885.	Leptostemonum	Old World-Madagascar
Solanummyrsinoides D’Arcy & Rakot.	Fl. Madag., Fam. 176: 115. 1994.	African non-spiny (ANS)
Solanumnava Webb & Berthel.	Phyt. Canar. 2. 3(3): 123. 1845.	Normania
Solanumnigriviolaceum Bitter	Repert. Spec. Nov. Regni Veg. Beih. 16: 163. 1923.	Leptostemonum	Old World-Africa
Solanumnigrum L.	Sp. Pl. 186. 1753.	Morelloid	Black nightshade
Solanumnitidibaccatum Bitter	Repert. Spec. Nov. Regni Veg. 11: 208. 1912.	Morelloid	Black nightshade
Solanumpampaninii Chiov.	Res. Sci. Somalia Ital. 1: 128. 1916.	Leptostemonum	Old World-Africa
Solanumpauperum C.H.Wright	Bull. Misc. Inform. Kew 1894: 127. 1894.	Leptostemonum	Old World-Africa
Solanumpectinatum Dunal	Prodr. [A. P. de Candolle] 13(1): 250. 1852.	Leptostemonum	Lasiocarpa
Solanumphoxocarpum Voronts.	Syst. Bot. 35: 903. 2010.	Leptostemonum	Old World-Africa
Solanumpimpinellifolium L.	Cent. Pl. 1: 8. 1755.	Potato	Tomato
Solanumpolhillii Voronts.	Syst. Bot. 35: 902. 2010.	Leptostemonum	Old World-Africa
Solanumpseudospinosum C.H.Wright	Fl. Trop. Afr. [Oliver et al.] 4, 2: 220. 1906.	Morelloid	Black nightshade
Solanumpyracanthos Lam.	Tabl. Encycl. 2: 21. 1794.	Leptostemonum	Old World-Madagascar
Solanumretroflexum Dunal	Prodr. [A. P. de Candolle] 13(1): 50. 1852.	Morelloid	Black nightshade
Solanumrichardii Dunal	Encycl. [J. Lamarck & al.] Suppl. 3: 775. 1814.	Leptostemonum	Old World-Africa
Solanumrigidum Lam.	Tabl. Encycl. 2: 23. 1794.	Leptostemonum	Old World-Africa
Solanumrobustum H.L.Wendl.	Flora 27: 784. 1844.	Leptostemonum	Erythrotrichum
Solanumrubetorum Dunal	Prodr. [A. P. de Candolle] 13(1): 304. 1852.	Leptostemonum	Old World-Africa
Solanumrunsoriense C.H.Wright	Uganda Prot. (H.H.Johnston) 1: 326. 1902.	African non-spiny (ANS)
Solanumruvu Voronts.	J. E. Afr. Nat. Hist. 99: 230. (2010) 2011.	Leptostemonum	Old World-Africa
Solanumsambiranense D’Arcy & Rakot.	Fl. Madag., Fam. 176: 123. 1994.	African non-spiny (ANS)
Solanumsarrachoides Sendtn.	Fl. Bras. (Martius) 10: 18, tab. 1, fig. 1-8. 1846.	Morelloid	Black nightshade
Solanumscabrum Mill.	Gard. Dict. ed. 8, no. 6. 1768.	Morelloid	Black nightshade
Solanumschimperianum Hochst. ex A.Rich.	Tent. Fl. Abyss. 2: 98. 1850.	Leptostemonum	Old World-Africa
Solanumschliebenii Werderm.	Notizbl. Bot. Gart. Berlin-Dahlem 12: 92. 1934.	Leptostemonum	Old World-Africa
Solanumschumannianum Dammer	Pflanzenw. Ost-Afrikas C (Engler): 352. 1895.	Leptostemonum	Old World-Africa
Solanumsetaceum Dammer	Pflanzenw. Ost-Afrikas C (Engler): 33. 1895.	Leptostemonum	Old World-Africa
Solanumsisymbriifolium Lam.	Tabl. Encycl. 2: 25. 1794.	Leptostemonum	Sisymbriifolium
Solanumsodomeodes Kuntze	Revis. Gen. Pl. 3(3): 227. 1898.	Leptostemonum	Old World-Africa
Solanumsomalense Franch.	Sert. Somal. 47. 1882.	Leptostemonum	Old World-Africa
Solanumstipitatostellatum Dammer	Abh. Königl. Akad. Wiss. Berlin 1894: 63. 1894.	Leptostemonum	Old World-Africa
Solanumsupinum Dunal	Prodr. [A. P. de Candolle] 13(1): 289. 1852.	Leptostemonum	Old World-Africa
Solanumtaitense Vatke	Linnaea 43: 327. 1882.	Leptostemonum	Old World-Africa
Solanumtarderemotum Bitter	Repert. Spec. Nov. Regni Veg. 10: 547. 1912.	Morelloid	Black nightshade
Solanumterminale Forssk.	Fl. Aegypt.-Arab. 45. 1775.	African non-spiny (ANS)
Solanumtettense Klotzsch	Naturw. Reise Mossambique (Peters) 1: 237. 1861.	Leptostemonum	Old World-Africa
Solanumthomsonii C.H.Wright	Fl. Trop. Afr. [Oliver et al.] 4, 2: 217. 1906.	Leptostemonum	Old World-Africa
Solanumtoliaraea D’Arcy & Rakot.	Ann. Missouri Bot. Gard. 76: 351. 1989.	Leptostemonum	Old World-Madagascar
Solanumtomentosum L.	Sp. Pl. 188. 1753.	Leptostemonum	Old World-Africa
Solanumtorreanum A.E.Gonç.	Kew Bull., 52(3): 706. 1997.	Leptostemonum	Old World-Africa
Solanumtorvum Sw.	Prodr. [O. P. Swartz] 47. 1788.	Leptostemonum	Torva
Solanumtrichopetiolatum D’Arcy & Rakot.	Fl. Madag., Fam. 176: 130. 1994.	African non-spiny (ANS)
Solanumtriflorum Nutt.	Gen. N. Amer. Pl. 1: 128. 1818.	Morelloid
Solanumtrisectum Dunal	Prodr. [A. P. de Candolle] 13(1): 36. 1852.	Normania
Solanumtruncicola Bitter	Bot. Jahrb. Syst. 54: 435. 1917.	African non-spiny (ANS)
Solanumtuberosum L.	Sp. Pl. 185. 1753.	Potato	Petota
Solanumumalilaense Manoko	PhytoKeys 16: 67. 2012.	Morelloid	Black nightshade
Solanumumtuma Voronts. & S.Knapp	PhytoKeys 8: 4. 2012.	Leptostemonum	Old World-Africa
Solanumusambarense Bitter & Dammer	Repert. Spec. Nov. Regni Veg. Beih. 16: 40. 1923.	Leptostemonum	Old World-Africa
Solanumusaramense Dammer	Pflanzenw. Ost-Afrikas C (Engler): 353. 1895.	Leptostemonum	Old World-Africa
Solanumvespertilio Aiton	Hort. Kew. ed. 1, 1: 252. 1789.	Leptostemonum	Old World
Solanumviarum Dunal	Prodr. [A. P. de Candolle] 13(1): 240. 1852.	Leptostemonum	Acanthophora
Solanumvillosum Mill.	Gard. Dict. ed. 8, no. 2. 1768.	Morelloid	Black nightshade
Solanumviolaceum Ortega	Nov. Pl. Descr. Dec. 56. 1798.	Leptostemonum	Old World-Tropical Asia
Solanumvirginianum L.	Sp. Pl. 187. 1753.	Leptostemonum	Old World-Tropical Asia
Solanumwendlandii Hook.f.	Bot. Mag. 113: tab. 6914. 1887.	Wendlandii-Allophyllum
Solanumwittei Robyns	Bull. Jard. Bot. État Bruxelles 17: 82. 1943.	Leptostemonum	Old World-Africa
Solanumwrightii Benth.	Fl. Hongk. 243. 1861.	Leptostemonum	Androceras-Crinitum
Solanumzanzibarense Vatke	Linnaea 43: 326. 1882.	Leptostemonum	Old World-Africa

Table 2.

Country distribution of species in Africa (as defined here); introduced (incl. cultivated) species in brackets (epithet); taxa not included in the keys because they are known from a singleton cultivated specimen, are in italic type. All records based on specimens examined by the authors with verified identities. The status of is not completely clear, but it is most likely to be introduced from the New World, so is treated as that here; , on the other hand, appears to have a worldwide distribution, so is treated as native. The occurrence of in Senegal is doubtful, the specimen is very old and the label may be in error. Cultivated plants are often not collected, so the absence of records of commonly cultivated crops (e.g. , , ) should not be interpreted as lack of occurrence, merely as lack of collections. was recorded from Eygpt by Fawzi and Habeeb (2016) with a verifiable photograph; this Mexican species is widely cultivated and easily naturalised and is likely to be spreading around the Mediterranean.

Country	Species
Algeria	herculeum, linnaeanum, nigrum, villosum
Angola	aculeastrum. (aculeatissimum), aethiopicum, americanum, anguivi, anomalum, aureitomentosum, (betaceum), campylacanthum, capsicoides, catombelense, dasyphyllum, humile, lichtensteinii, (lycopersicum), macrocarpon, mammosum, (mauritianum), pauperum, scabrum, tarderemotum, terminale, tettense, villosum
Azores	(linnaeanum), (chenopodioides), (chrysotrichum), (nava?), nigrum, (maritianum), (pseudocapsicum), villosum
Benin	anguivi, anomalum, incanum, scabrum, (torvum)
Botswana	campylacanthum, catombelense, lichtensteinii, retroflexum, scabrum, supinum, tarderemotum, tettense, villosum
Burkina Faso	cerasiferum, dasyphyllum, incanum, scabrum
Burundi	aculeastrum, anguivi, campylacanthum, cyaneopurpureum, dasyphyllum, mammosum, memphiticum, tarderemotum, terminale, villosum
Cabo Verde	(agrarium), americanum, (lycopersicum), nigrum, rigidum, scabrum, tarderemotum, (torvum)
Cameroon	aculeastrum, (aculeatissimum), aethiopicum, americanum, anguivi, anomalum, cerasiferum, dasyphyllum, (erianthum), giganteum, (lycopersicum), macrocarpon, (mauritianum), (melongena), pseudospinosum, scabrum, tarderemotum, terminale, (torvum), (wendlandii), (wrightii)
Canary Islands (Spain)	americanum, (laxum), (lycopersicum), (mauritianum), nava, nigrum, (pseudocapsicum), (robustum), vespertilio, (wendlandii)
Central African Republic (CAR)	aculeastrum, (aculeatissimum), anguivi, cerasiferum, dasyphyllum, giganteum, (lycopersicum), macrocarpon, scabrum, (seaforthianum), terminale, (torvum), (wrightii)
Chad	cerasiferum, forskalii, incanum, tarderemotum, villosum
Comoros (incl. Mayotte)	americanum, macrothyrsum, richardii, scabrum, tarderemotum, terminale, (torvum)
Democratic Republic of the Congo	aculeastrum, (aculeatissimum), aethiopicum, anomalum, aureitomentosum, campylacanthum, cerasiferum, (chrysotrichum), cyaneopurpureum, dasyphyllum, giganteum, lichtensteinii, (lycopersicum), macrocarpon, (mammosum), (mauritianum), (melongena), memphiticum, richardii, runsoriense, scabrum, (seaforthianum), tarderemotum, terminale, tettense, (torvum), (viarum), wittei, (wrightii)
Republic of the Congo	aculeastrum, anomalum, dasyphyllum, (lycopersicum), terminale, (torvum)
Cote d’Ivoire	(aculeatissimum), americanum, anguivi, anomalum, cerasiferum, dasyphyllum, (lycopersicum), scabrum, terminale, (torvum)
Djibouti	somalense
Egypt (incl. Hala’ib triangle)*	coagulans, (diphyllum), dulcamara, elaeagnifolium, forskalii, incanum, (lycopersicum), macrocarpon, (melongena), memphiticum, nigrum, scabrum, (torvum), villosum, virginianum, (wendlandii), (wrightii)
Equatorial Guinea	(aculeatissimum), aethiopicum, americanum, anguivi, dasyphyllum, giganteum, (lycopersicum), pseudospinosum, scabrum, terminale, (torvum)
Eritrea	adoense, americanum, anguivi, campylacanthum, cerasiferum, coagulans, dasyphyllum, forskalii, glabratum, incanum, (lycopersicum), macracanthum, marginatum, melastomoides, (melongena), memphiticum, muricatum, scabrum, schimperianum, somalense, tarderemotum, terminale, villosum
Ethiopia	(aculeatissimum), adoense, americanum, anguivi, arundo, campylacanthum, capsicoides, cerasiferum, coagulans, cordatum, dennekense, forskalii, giganteum, glabratum, hastifolium, hirtulum, incanum, jubae, lanzae, (lycopersicum), macracanthum, macrocarpon, marginatum, melastomoides, memphiticum, muricatum, pampaninii, runsoriense, schimperianum, somalense, tarderemotum, terminale, tettense, villosum, (wrightii)
Gabon	aethiopicum, americanum, anguivi, anomalum, dasyphyllum, giganteum, macrocarpon, scabrum, terminale, (torvum), (wrightii)
Gambia	americanum, anguivi, cerasiferum, dasyphyllum
Ghana	(aculeatissimum), americanum, anguivi, anomalum, capsicoides, dasyphyllum, (erianthum), incanum, macrocarpon, (melongena), scabrum, tarderemotum, terminale, (torvum), (wrightii)
Guinea	(aculeatissimum), anguivi, (erianthum), scabrum, tarderemotum, terminale, (torvum), (wrightii)
Guinea-Bissau	americanum, anguivi, cerasiferum, dasyphyllum, terminale
Kenya	aculeastrum, (aculeatissimum), aethiopicum, agnewiorum, americanum, anguivi, arundo, (betaceum), campylacanthum, coagulans, cordatum, dasyphyllum, dennekense, forskalii, giganteum, goetzei, hastifolium, incanum, jubae, lanzae, (laxum), (lycopersicum), macrocarpon, malindiense, mammosum, mauense, (mauritianum), melastomoides, (melongena), nigriviolaceum, pampaninii, phoxocarpum, polhillii, (pseudocapsicum), richardii, runsoriense, schumannianum, (seaforthianum), setaceum, sisymbrifolium, somalense, stipitatostellatum, taitense, tarderemotum, terminale, tettense, (tuberosum), usambarense, usaramense, villosum, (wendlandii), (wrightii), zanzibarense
Lesotho	(aculeatissimum), (chenopodioides), lichtensteinii, retroflexum, scabrum, sodomeodes, tarderemotum
Liberia	(aculeatissimum), americanum, anguivi, anomalum, dasyphyllum, (lycopersicum), (mauritianum), scabrum, terminale, (torvum)
Libya	linnaeanum, nigrum, villosum, virginianum
Madagascar	aethiopicum, americanum, anguivi, batoides, (betaceum), betroka, bumeliifolium, croatii, erythracanthum, heinianum, humblotii, imamense, insanum, ivohibe, (lycopersicum), macrocarpon, madagascariense, mahoriense, (mauritianum), (melongena), myoxotrichum, myrsinoides, (pseudocapsicum), pyracanthos, richardii, sambiranense, scabrum, (seaforthianum), tarderemotum, toliaraea, (torvum), trichopetiolatum, truncicola, (tuberosum), violaceum
Madeira (Portugal)	(chenopodioides), dulcamara, (laxum), linnaeanum, (lycopersicum), marginatum, nigrum, (pseudocapsicum), trisectum, villosum
Malawi	aculeastrum, (aculeatissimum), aethiopicum, americanum, anguivi, aureitomentosum, campylacanthum, (chrysotrichum), dasyphyllum, giganteum, goetzei, lichtensteinii, macrocarpon, retroflexum, richardii, scabrum, schumannianum, (seaforthianum), tarderemotum, terminale, tettense, (torvum), villosum, (wendlandii), (wrightii)
Mali	cerasiferum, dasyphyllum, forskalii, incanum, (lycopersicum), tarderemotum
Mauritania	dasyphyllum, scabrum, villosum
Mauritius (incl. La Réunion)	americanum, (anguivi), (chenopodioides), erythracanthum, insanum, (lycopersicum), (mauritianum), (melongena), richardii, tarderemotum, (torvum), violaceum
Morocco	dulcamara, elaeagnifolium, forskalii, herculeum, (laciniatum), linnaeanum, nigrum, triflorum, villosum
Mozambique	aculeastrum, (aculeatissimum), aethiopicum, americanum, anguivi, aureitomentosum, campylacanthum, catombelense, dasyphyllum, giganteum, goetzei, lamprocarpum, lichtensteinii, linnaeanum, litoraneum, retroflexum, richardii, scabrum, stipitatostellatum, tarderemotum, tettense, torreanum, (torvum), usaramense, (viarum), villosum, zanzibarense
Namibia	burchellii, campylacanthum, capense, catombelense, elaeagnifolium, numile, lichtensteinii, (lycopersicum), pimpinellifolium, retroflexum, scabrum, (seaforthianum), supinum, tarderemotum, tettense
Niger	anguivi, forskalii, incanum, (lycopersicum), villosum
Nigeria	aculeastrum, (aculeatissimum), aethiopicum, americanum, anguivi, anomalum, cerasiferum, dasyphyllum, (erianthum), giganteum, incanum, (lycopersicum), macrocarpon, melongena, scabrum, terminale, (torvum), villosum, (wrightii)
Rwanda	aculeastrum, (aculeatissimum), anguivi, campylacanthum, cyaneopurpureum, dasyphyllum, giganteum, tarderemotum, terminale, wittei
São Tome e Principe	americanum, capsicoides, (melongena), scabrum, terminale
Senegal	anguivi, cerasiferum, forskalii, incanum, (lycopersicum), rigidum ?, scabrum, tarderemotum
Seychelles	aldabrense, americanum, scabrum
Sierra Leone	aculeatissimum, americanum, anguivi, capsicoides, dasyphyllum, (erianthum), (lycopersicum), macrocarpon, (melongena), scabrum, tarderemotum, terminale, (torvum), (wrightii)
Somalia	arundo, campylacanthum, coagulans, cordatum, cymbalariifolium, dasyphyllum, dennekense, forskalii, glabratum, hastifolium, incanum, jubae, melastomoides, (melongena), memphiticum, pampaninii, schimperianum, somalense, tarderemotum, tettense, villosum
South Africa	aculeastrum, (aculeatissimum), africanum, americanum, anguivi, burchellii, campylacanthum, capense, catombelense, (chenopodioides), (chrysotrichum), dasyphyllum, elaeagnifolium, giganteum, guineense, humile, (laxum), lichtensteinii, linnaeanum, (mauritianum), (pseudocapsicum), retroflexum, rubetorum, (sarrachoides), (seaforthianum), sisymbriifolium, sodomeodes, supinum, tarderemotum, terminale, tettense, tomentosum, torreanum, (torvum), triflorum, (viarum), (wrightii)
South Sudan	aculeastrum, (aculeatissimum), aethiopicum, anguivi, campylacanthum, cerasiferum, coagulans, dasyphyllum, giganteum, hastifolium, scabrum, tarderemotum, terminale
Sudan (incl. Hala’ib triangle)*	aculeastrum, adoense, aethiopicum, campylacanthum, cerasiferum, coagulans, forskalii, hastifolium, incanum, macrocarpon, memphiticum, nigrum, scabrum, schimperianum, somalense, tarderemotum, villosum
Swaziland	aculeastrum, campylacanthum, catombelense, retroflexum, (robustum), (seaforthianum), sisymbriifolium, torreanum
Tanzania	aculeastrum, (aculeatissimum), americanum, anguivi, arundo, (atropurpureum), aureitomentosum, (betaceum), campylacanthum, coagulans, cyaneopurpureum, dasyphyllum, dennekense, giganteum, goetzei, hastifolium, inaequiradians, lamprocarpum, lanzae, lichtensteinii, (lycopersicum), macrocarpon, mauense, (melongena), memphiticum, (pectinatum), phoxocarpum, polhillii, richardii, (robustum), scabrum, schliebenii, schumannianum, (seaforthianum), setaceum, stipitatostellatum, taitense, tarderemotum, terminale, tettense, thomsonii, (tuberosum), umalilaense, usambarense, usaramense, villosum, (wendlandii), wittei, (wrightii), zanzibarense
Togo	(aculeatissimum), aethiopicum, americanum, anguivi, anomalum, (melongena), scabrum, terminale, (torvum)
Tunisia	linnaeanum, (lycopersicum), nigrum, triflorum, villosum
Uganda	aculeastrum, (aculeatissimum), aethiopicum, americanum, anguivi, (betaceum), campylacanthum, cerasiferum, coagulans, cyaneopurpureum, dasyphyllum, giganteum, hastifolium, lanzae, macrocarpon, mammosum, mauense, mauritianum, memphiticum, runsoriense, scabrum, schumannianum, (seaforthianum), tarderemotum, terminale, tettense, villosum, wittei, (wrightii)
Western Sahara	villosum
Zambia	(aculeatissimum), americanum, anguivi, aureitomentosum, campylacanthum, (chrysotrichum), goetzei, lichtensteinii, (lycopersicum), retroflexum, richardii, scabrum, (seaforthianum), tarderemotum, terminale, tettense, (torvum), (tuberosum), villosum, (wendlandii), (wrightii)
Zimbabwe	aculeastrum. (aculeatissimum), anguivi, aureitomentosum, (betaceum), campylacanthum, catombelense, giganteum, lichtensteinii, linnaeanum, (mauritianum), retroflexum, richardii, scabrum, (seaforthianum), tarderemotum, terminale, villosum, (wendlandii)

*Possession of the area known as the Hala’ib triangle is disputed between Egypt and Sudan, species occurring there are listed under both coutries.

Figure 1.

Heat map of diversity in Africa. Darker degree squares indicate greater species richness. The middle to high elevation regions of eastern Africa (Kenya/Tanzania) have the highest high species diversity, followed by secondary areas of species richness in the Ethiopian plateaus, dry areas of central Madagascar, South Africa and the area around Mount Cameroon. We have not analysed how collecting effort has influenced these patterns, but it is likely to be important. As the Clade has the largest number of species in Africa, diversity in that clade drives species richness overall (see Vorontsova and Knapp 2016, figure 2). Map prepared by Sarah Ficinski.

Materials and methods

We modified keys from published monographs for groups of from the botanical continent “Africa” as defined in the World Geographical Scheme for Recording Plant Distributions (WGSRPD; Brummitt 2001). This corresponds basically to the countries of the continent of Africa, but excludes the Sinai Peninsula (politically part of Egypt and in WGSRPD part of Western Asia). It also includes islands grouped as Macaronesia (Azores, Canary Islands, Madeira and the Cape Verde Islands ) and Madagascar and other Indian Ocean islands east to Rodrigues.

We assessed distribution using the published monographs, with additional data points added from subsequent herbarium visits. All specimens seen for these keys can be seen in the Supplemental File and in the dataset published on the NHM Data Portal (https://doi.org/10.5519/0042549). For descriptions of the taxa, users are referred to the original publications or the Source website (www.solanaceaesource.org), where all species treated here are described and synonymy listed.

To access descriptions on the Source website, begin by typing the species name in the search box in the upper right-hand part of the screen banner (tick the option “Taxonomy” below the box); when the correct name you are searching for appears, select it, then push the “Search” button to the right of the search box (if you do not push the “Search” button, nothing will happen). You will be taken to the species page, where images and synonyms appear on the opening page; to access descriptions, click on the “Description” tab where information can be obtained. Up-to-date specimen details are not currently available on the website but can be found as described above.

Keys

can be divided into 13 major clades or monophyletic groups (Bohs 2005; Weese and Bohs 2007; Särkinen et al. 2013; see Figures 2 and 3 for photographs illustrating representative morphology of these groups in Africa). The largest monophyletic clade is the clade, or the “spiny solanums”, which comprises approximately half of the species diversity of the genus; divisions within that clade have been defined by Stern et al. (2011), Vorontsova et al. (2013) and Aubriot et al. (2016). This group is rapidly diversifying in the Old World (Echeverría-Londoño et al. 2018), with most taxa occurring in the Old World belonging to a single monophyletic group. Previous treatments (e.g. Whalen 1984; Jaeger 1985; Jaeger and Hepper 1986) had suggested the African taxa were members of, or closely related to New World groups. More information on the phylogenetic relationships of African and Asian members of the Clade can be found in Vorontsova et al. (2013) and Aubriot et al. (2016). Other clades with significant species diversity in Africa (as defined here) are the African non-spiny (ANS) and Clades (both endemic to the region; see Bohs and Olmstead 2001) and the Morelloid Clade (with a number of widespread weedy taxa, see Särkinen et al. 2018). Other clades such as the , Brevantherum and Potato Clades are represented only by introduced or cultivated species. The Dulcamaroid Clade has a single species native to Mediterranean northern Africa and Macaronesia and two cultivated taxa that can become naturalised (Knapp 2013). In order to facilitate identification and to assist with the discovery of novelties from the region, we provide a key to the major groups (clades) of following the most recent phylogeny of the genus (Särkinen et al. 2013) and additional dichotomous keys to the species within each group. Groups are ordered as they occur as branches in the phylogeny of Särkinen et al. (2013).

Figure 2.

A, B Hook.f. (Allophyllum-Wendlandii Clade) C Bitter (Morelloid Clade) D Mill. (Morelloid Clade) E Lam. ( Clade) F Dunal ( Clade) G Bitter ( Clade) H Bitter & Dammer ( Clade). Photos A, B, F, G H by M.S. Vorontosova C, D, E by S. Knapp.

Figure 3.

A Forssk. (African non-spiny Clade) B Dunal (African non-spiny Clade) C Scop. (Brevantherum Clade) D Spreng. (Dulcamaroid Clade) E Dunal ( Clade) F L. ( Clade) G L. (Potato Clade) H Aiton (Archaeosolanum Clade). Photos A, C, D, E, F, G, H by S. Knapp B by M.S. Vorontsova.

Four species have been recorded from this area, for which we have only seen single specimens, all of which are cultivated and not naturalised. Aiton (Archaesolanum Clade), the kangaroo apple from Australia and New Zealand, has been recorded from Morocco, Sendtn. ( Clade, Dunal sensu Nee 1979) from Brazil has only recently been collected in the Cape Verde Islands and Schrank ( Clade, Dunal sensu Nee 1979) from Brazil and Dunal ( Clade, Dunal sensu Whalen et al. 1981) from Mexico have been recorded from Tanzania in a botanical garden. These singletons have been included in Table 1, but not in the keys below; descriptions should be checked if identification is ambiguous.

Each species name is hyperlinked to its page on Source (www.solanaceaesource.org) where photographs (if available), descriptions and other information can be found. An expanded key to all of the thirteen major clades of worldwide is in preparation (R. Hilgenhof and T. Särkinen, pers. comm.). Instructions on how to use source are included in the Materials and Methods.

1a	Trichomes of stems and leaves stellate or echinoid	2
1b	Trichomes of stems and leaves simple (unbranched) or dendritically branched, never stellate or echinoid	3
2a	Anthers ellipsoid in outline; inflorescences many times branched; branching dichasial; stems without prickles	Key 6. Brevantherum Clade
2b	Anthers tapering in outline; inflorescences branched or unbranched; branching monochasial; stems with or without prickles	Key 7. Leptostemonum Clade
3a	Shrubs, small trees or woody vines	4
3b	Herbs or if plants woody, only at the base; never true vines, occasionally scandent	9
4a	Stems with hooked prickles; anthers tapering	Solanumwendlandii Hook.f. (Wendlandii-Allophyllum Clade)
4b	Stems without prickles; anthers ellipsoid	5
5a	Small trees with foetid cordate leaves; flowers waxy pink or greenish white; anther connectives enlarged; fruit a large turbinate berry with fleshy pulp; cultivated tree tomato	Solanumbetaceum Cav. (Pachyphylla [Cyphomandra] Clade)
5b	Shrubs or woody vines; leaves, flowers and anther connectives not as above	6
6a	Small shrubs with paired (geminate) leaves; flowers nodding, white; fruit held on erect pedicels, orange; cultivated or occasionally naturalised in northern Africa	7
6b	Woody vines or scandent shrubs; leaves, flowers and fruit not as above; continental Africa, Madagascar; or cultivated	8
7a	Leaves lanceolate, with at least some branched trichomes on new growth; leaves of a pair more or less the same shape; inflorescence usually with 2 flowers; berry dark orange; cultivated “Jerusalem cherry”	Solanumpseudocapsicum L. (Geminata Clade)
7b	Leaves ovate or elliptic, completely glabrous; leaves of a pair markedly different in shape; inflorescence with more than 2 flowers; berry pale orange; only recorded from Egypt	Solanumdiphyllum L. (Geminata Clade)
8a	Base of pedicel enclosed in a small sleeve of rhachis tissue usually more than 0.5 mm long; Mediterranean northern Africa; Macaronesia; if in other parts of Africa, cultivated	Key 3. Dulcamaroid Clade
8b	Base of pedicel peg-like, sometimes enclosed in a small sleeve of rhachis tissue, if so the sleeve less than 0.5 mm long; Continental tropical Africa; Madagascar; native plants	Key 1. African non-spiny (ANS) Clade
9a	Leaves pinnate or deeply pinnatifid	11
9b	Leaves simple (at most the margins toothed) or at most ternate	12
10a	Fleshy prostrate herbs; leaves pinnatifid, the leaflets not distinct; inflorescences unbranched	Solanumtriflorum Nutt. (Morelloid Clade)
10b	Spreading herbs or herbaceous scramblers, not fleshy; leaves pinnate with distinct leaflets; inflorescences branched or less often unbranched	Key 5. Potato Clade
11a	Anthers dimorphic, of different sizes and two of the five with horn-like projections; Macaronesia and northern Africa	Key 2. Normania Clade
11b	Anthers equal in size and shape, if unequal only slightly so; widespread or cultivated	12
12a	Trichomes simple with a single long terminal cell (bayonet hairs); fruit a large greenish berry with purple stripes (more than 3 cm diameter), with abundant solid mesocarp; herbaceous vine	Solanummuricatum Aiton (Potato Clade)
12b	Trichomes simple or branched; fruit variously coloured (usually less than 1 cm in diameter), with juicy mesocarp; annual or short-lived perennial herbs	Key 4. Morelloid Clade

1a	Leaves glabrous on both surfaces	2
1b	Leaves with at least some pubescence on either surface (this sometimes sparse along veins and midrib)	10
2a	Inflorescence few-flowered, unbranched (at most furcate in Solanumbetroka)	3
2b	Inflorescence many flowered, usually many times branched	5
3a	Flowers appearing fasciculate and axillary; corolla usually somewhat campanulate; fruit orange; South Africa	Solanumguineense L.
3b	Flowers not appearing fasciculate; corolla stellate, the petals spreading or reflexed; fruit colour green, black or not known, never orange; Madagascar	4
4a	Leaves clustered on short shoots; calyx lobes deltate, not divided to base; dry forests	Solanumbetroka D’Arcy & Rakot.
4b	Leaves not clustered on short shoots; calyx lobes long triangular, divided to the base; wet forests	Solanumtruncicola D’Arcy & Rakot.
5a	Flowers or fruits (or pedicel scars) in tightly packed groups on individual branches (these sometimes very short and the inflorescence appearing spicate)	Solanumterminale Forssk.
5b	Flowers spaced on the open inflorescence, often unevenly so	6
6a	Leaves clustered on short shoots	Solanumbetroka D’Arcy & Rakot.
6b	Leaves spaced along the stem	7
7a	Anthers opening by pores that elongate with age; mountains of continental Africa	Solanumrunsoriense C.H.Wright
7b	Anthers opening by delineated pores that do not elongate with age; Madagascar	8
8a	Leaves fleshy, thick and coriaceous, the venation not visible in dry specimens; fruit with thick pericarp (woody?)	Solanummyrsinoides D’Arcy & Rakot.
8b	Leaves membranous to coriaceous, not markedly thick and fleshy, the venation visible in dry specimens; fruit with thin pericarp, the seeds visible through the berry wall	9
9a	Petioles with long, simple trichomes (these not extending to the lamina); seeds 4–8 per berry; inflorescence axis thin and delicate	Solanumtrichopetiolatum D’Arcy & Rakot.
9b	Petioles glabrous or with minute dendritic trichomes; seeds 20–40 per berry; inflorescence axis robust	Solanummadagascariense Dunal
10a	Leaf trichomes simple (unbranched)	11
10b	Leaf trichomes branched (dendritic to echinoid)	16
11a	Inflorescence axis unbranched, the flowers closely spaced	12
11b	Inflorescence axis branched, often many times so	13
12a	Leaves clustered along stem; fruit orange; South Africa	Solanumguineense L.
12b	Leaves spaced along shoots; fruit purple or black; Madagascar	Solanumtruncicola D’Arcy & Rakot.
13a	Flowers or fruits (or pedicel scars) in tightly packed groups on individual branches (these sometimes very short and the inflorescence appearing spicate)	Solanumterminale Forssk.
13b	Flowers spaced on the open inflorescence, often unevenly so	14
14a	Stems strongly quadrangular; at least some leaves with shallow lobes; plants of seashore and dune habitats	Solanumafricanum Mill.
14b	Stems terete; leaves not lobed; plants of forests and forest edges	15
15a	Leaf pubescence very sparse, confined to the midrib or near the petiole; flowers not heterostylous; Madagascar	Solanumtrichopetiolatum D’Arcy & Rakot.
15a	Leaf pubescence variable, not very sparse, along veins and lamina; flowers heterostylous; mountains of continental Africa	Solanumrunsoriense C.H.Wright
16a	Abaxial leaf surfaces with tufts of trichomes in the vein axils (domatia)	17
16b	Abaxial leaf surfaces with trichomes on lamina and/or along veins, not with prominent tufts in the vein axils (domatia)	19
17a	Inflorescence many times branched, open and with many flowers (more than 20); calyx lobes broadly deltate; petioles to 4 cm long, thin and flexuous; Mayotte (Comoros)	Solanummacrothyrsum Dammer
17b	Inflorescence furcate, more congested and with fewer flowers (fewer than 20); calyx lobes deltate; petioles to 2.5 cm long, thicker; Madagascar	18
18a	Calyx lobes 0.8–2 mm long; inflorescences with 10–16 flowers	Solanumivohibe D’Arcy & Rakot.
18b	Calyx lobes 4–6 mm long; inflorescences with 3–10 flowers	Solanumsambiranense D’Arcy & Rakot.
19a	Abaxial leaf surfaces evenly pubescent on veins and lamina	20
19b	Abaxial leaf surfaces pubescent only along the veins and midrib, the trichomes not extending to the lamina	22
20a	Anther pores lengthening to slits with age; flowers heterostylous; leaves evenly distributed along branches; mountains of continental Africa	Solanumrunsoriense C.H.Wright
20b	Anther pores not lengthening to slit with age; flowers not heterostylous; leaves usually at least somewhat clustered on short shoots; Madagascar	21
21a	Leaves densely pubescent with golden (when dry) loosely dendritic trichomes; flowers more than 2 cm in diameter; anthers 4–6 mm long; widespread in Madagascar	Solanumimamense Dunal
21b	Leaves sparsely pubescent with white (when dry) congested dendritic trichomes; flowers 2 cm in diameter or less; anthers 3.5–4 mm long; dry forests of southern Madagascar	Solanumbetroka D’Arcy & Rakot.
22a	Inflorescence unbranched, with few flowers; pedicels 1.8–4.5 cm long	Solanumhumblotii Bitter
22b	Inflorescence many times branched, with many flowers; pedicels 0.8–1.2 cm long	23
23a	Anther pores lengthening to slits with age; flowers heterostylous; pedicels with pubescence like the inflorescence rhachis; mountains of continental Africa	Solanumrunsoriense C.H.Wright
23b	Anther pores not lengthening to slit with age; flowers not heterostylous; pedicels always glabrous; Madagascar	Solanummadagascariense Dunal

1a	Leaves shallowly lobed, pubescent with long, tangled eglandular trichomes; anthers tapering, horned near the base, tightly connivent; seeds more than 5 mm long; fruit a dry berry; Mediterranean	Solanumherculeum Bohs
1b	Leaves simple or ternate, glabrous or pubescent, but the trichomes not long and tangled, glandular; anthers markedly horned, spreading; seeds less than or equal to 5 mm long; fruit a brightly coloured, juicy berry; laurisylva forest in Macaronesia	2
2a	Leaves simple or ternate, the base truncate or cordate if leaves unlobed; anthers yellow, horned in lower third; berry bright red; Madeira	Solanumtrisectum Dunal
2b	Leaves simple, the base cordate; anthers black, horned about halfway up from the base; berry orange or red; Tenerife, Canary Islands	Solanumnava Webb & Berthel.

1a	Buds turbinate and strongly pointed; petals strongly reflexed, with shiny green dots at the base of each; anthers tightly connivent with “glue”; fruit a shiny red berry, often ellipsoid; native plants in Mediterranean northern Africa	Solanumdulcamara L.
1b	Buds rounded, often somewhat inflated; petals spreading, without shiny green dots; anthers not tightly connivent with “glue”; fruit red or black, globose; cultivated plants, occasionally naturalised throughout the region	2
2a	Flowers white; anthers on equal filaments; leaves with axillary tufts of trichomes on the lower surfaces (domatia), usually simple, occasionally pinnatifid; berry (very rarely) black	Solanumlaxum Spreng.
2b	Flowers purple; one filament slightly longer than the other 4; leaves completely glabrous, pinnatifid, rarely simple; berry bright shiny red	Solanumseaforthianum Andrews

1a	Leaves shallowly to deeply pinnatifid	Solanumtriflorum Nutt.
1b	Leaves entire to sinuate-dentate	2
2a	Glandular trichomes present (e.g. along stems, petioles and leaves), plants usually sticky to touch when fresh	3
2b	Glandular trichomes absent (e.g. along stems, petioles and leaves), plants not sticky to touch when fresh	14
3a	Anthers less than 1.8 mm long	4
3b	Anthers more than or equal to 1.8 mm long	7
4a	Inflorescences with 10–40 flowers; pedicels spaced 1–2 mm apart, sharply bent at the base (near articulation point) in flower and fruit	Solanumtarderemotum Bitter
4b	Inflorescences with 2–5(-10) flowers; pedicels spaced 0–1 mm apart, nodding, erect or spreading in flower and fruit, reflexed and slightly curved in some species in fruit but never in flower	5
5a	Calyx lobes 1–1.5 mm long in flower; fruiting calyces not accrescent, the tube remaining 1–1.7 mm long and lobes 1–1.5 mm long; fruit black when ripe, not markedly shiny, with a glaucous cast	Solanumretroflexum Dunal
5b	Calyx lobes 1.5–2.5 mm long in flower; fruiting calyces accrescent, the tube 3–4 mm long and lobes 2.5–8.0 mm long; fruit green when ripe, shiny	6
6a	Leaf bases attenuate to cuneate; inflorescences mostly intermodal, with 4–8(-10) flowers; pedicels spaced 0.3–1 mm apart; calyx lobes 1.7–2.5 mm long; corollas with yellow-green central eye with black-purple V-shaped margins; anthers 1.0–1.4 mm long; berries dark green to green-brown marbled with white lines, becoming usually translucent and glossy, lower half of berries covered with enlarged calyces but berry mostly visible; seeds brown; stone cells (1-)2–3, these 0.5 mm in diameter; northern Africa	Solanumnitidibaccatum Bitter
6b	Leaf bases truncate; inflorescences mostly leaf-opposed, with 2–5(-7) flowers; pedicels spaced 0(-1) mm apart; calyx lobes 1.5–2.0 mm long; corolla with yellow-green or translucent basal star without black-purple colouration; anthers 1.2–2.0 mm long; berries pale green, shiny becoming dull, opaque, usually completely enveloped by enlarged calyces; seeds pale yellow; stone cells 4–6, these (0.5-)0.8–1 mm in diameter; only known from South Africa	Solanumsarrachoides Sendtn.
7a	Anthers more than or equal to 2.8 mm long	8
7b	Anthers less than 2.8 mm long	9
8a	Inflorescences with bracteoles present in most individuals; buds narrowly ellipsoid; corolla deeply stellate, the lobes narrowly lanceolate; berries with more than 30 stone cells	Solanumtriflorum Nutt.
8b	Inflorescences never with bracteoles; buds globose, ovoid or narrowly ellipsoid; corolla rotate-stellate, the lobes long- triangular with rounded tips; berries with (0-)2–4 stone cells	Solanummemphiticum Forssk.
9a	Calyx lobes appressed to spreading in fruit, never strongly reflexed	10
9b	Calyx lobes strongly reflexed in fruit	12
10a	Calyx accrescent in fruit, calyx tube 3–4 mm long and lobes 2.5–8 mm long	Solanumsarrachoides Sendtn.
10b	Calyx not accrescent in fruit, calyx tube 1–2 mm long and lobes 1–1.5 mm long	11
11a	Buds ellipsoid; calyx tube 1.5–2.0 mm long, lobes 1–1.5 mm long, elongate-deltate with rounded tips; fruiting pedicels persist when fruits mature and fall off; Cameroon line (Cameroon and Equatorial Guinea), above 2,000 m elevation	Solanumpseudospinosum C.H.Wright
11b	Buds subglobose; calyx tube 0.8–1.0 mm long, lobes 0.5–0.8 mm long, triangular with rounded to acute tips; fruiting pedicels generally do not persist and fall off with maturing fruits; in continental Africa only in South Africa and around the Mediterranean	Solanumnigrum L.
12a	Leaves rhomboidal to lanceolate; filaments 1.2–1.5 mm long, anthers 1.3–1.8(-2) mm long; seeds 1.6–1.8 mm long and 1.3–1.5 mm wide	Solanumretroflexum Dunal
12b	Leaves broadly to narrowly ovate to elliptic; filaments 0.5–1.3 mm long; anthers 1.8–2.5 mm long; seeds 1.8–2.2 mm long and 1.5–1.7 mm wide	13
13a	Calyx with broad and relatively transparent sinuses, lobes elliptic to triangular, rounded at tip; free part of the filaments 1.0–1.3 mm long; mature berries slightly ellipsoid, shiny yellow, orange or red; stone cells always absent	Solanumvillosum Mill.
13b	Calyx with narrow, sharp triangular sinuses, lobes deltate with acute or rounded tips; free part of the filaments 0.5–0.7 mm long; mature berries round, dull black or green; stone cells 0–4; in Africa only in South Africa and around the Mediterranean	Solanumnigrum L.
14a	Anthers less than 1.8 mm long	15
14b	Anthers more than or equal to 1.8 mm long	17
15a	Pedicels spaced 1–2 mm apart, pedicels sharply bent at the base (near the articulation point) in flower and fruit	Solanumtarderemotum Bitter
15b	Pedicels spaced 0–0.5 mm apart, pedicels nodding, erect or spreading in flower and fruit	16
16a	Leaves with entire margins, occasionally sinuate-dentate; calyx lobes 0.3–0.5 mm long in flower, 1(-2) mm in fruit; mature fruits black, the surface very shiny	Solanumamericanum Mill.
16b	Leaves shallowly toothed, occasionally entire; calyx lobes 1.0–1.5 mm long in flower, 1.5–2 mm in fruit; mature fruits purple-black or green, the surface dull	Solanumretroflexum Dunal
17a	Anthers less than 2.8 mm long	18
17b	Anthers more than or equal to 2.8 mm long	27
18a	Berries without stone cells	19
18b	Berries with 2–22 stone cells	24
19a	Pedicels persisting and not dropping with mature fruits; calyx lobes in fruit mostly strongly reflexed	20
19b	Pedicels dropping with mature fruits; calyx lobes in fruit appressed to slightly spreading, rarely strongly reflexed	22
20a	Leaves rhomboidal to lanceolate; filaments 1.2–1.5 mm long, anthers 1.3–1.8(-2) mm long; seeds 1.6–1.8 mm long and 1.3–1.5 mm wide	Solanumretroflexum Dunal
20b	Leaves broadly to narrowly ovate to elliptic; filaments 0.5–1.3 mm long; anthers 1.8–2.5 mm long; seeds 1.8–2.2 mm long and 1.5–1.7 mm wide	21
21a	Calyx with broad and relatively transparent sinuses, lobes elliptic to triangular, rounded at tip; filaments 1.0–1.3 mm long; mature berries slightly ellipsoid, shiny yellow, orange or red; stone cells always absent	Solanumvillosum Mill.
21b	Calyx with narrow, sharp triangular sinuses, lobes deltate with acute tips; filaments 0.5–0.7 mm long; mature berries round, dull black or green; stone cells generally absent (2–4 stone cells common in Asian material)	Solanumnigrum L.
22a	Buds elongate-oblong; fruiting peduncles strongly deflexed at the base (bent downwards at junction with the stem)	Solanumchenopodioides Lam.
22b	Buds ellipsoid to subglobose; fruiting peduncles straight or ascending	23
23a	Pedicels spaced 1–2 mm apart, sharply bent at the base (near the articulation point) in flower and fruit; seeds 1.5–2 mm long and 1–1.5 mm wide	Solanumtarderemotum Bitter
23b	Pedicels spaced 0–0.7 mm apart, straight, spreading or reflexed in flower and fruit; seeds 1.8–2 mm long and 1.5–1.6 mm wide	Solanumnigrum L.
24a	Prostrate herb; leaves narrowly elliptic to lanceolate, base strongly attenuate; inflorescences with 1–5 flowers; pedicels stout and spreading; calyx lobes linear-oblong with rounded apices; mountains of Ethiopia	Solanumhirtulum C.H.Wright
24b	Upright or spreading herb; leaves broadly ovate to elliptic, base acuminate, acute, obtuse, truncate to abruptly attenuate; inflorescences with 2–40 flowers; pedicels thinner, spreading to strongly reflexed; calyx lobes triangular, broadly deltoid or ovate with acute to rounded apices	25
25a	Pedicels strongly bent downwards at the base (near articulation point) in flower and fruit	Solanumtarderemotum Bitter
25b	Pedicels spreading, stout or pendent in flower, occasionally recurved in fruit but never strongly bent downwards at the base	26
26a	Inflorescences unbranched or more often branched, often with small leaves (bracteoles?); calyx lobes broadly deltate to mere enations of the rim; style exserted 1.0–1.5 mm beyond anther cone; mature berries 3–4(-5) mm in diameter, dull yellowish brown	Solanumumalilaense Manoko
26b	Inflorescences unbranched, never with small leaves; calyx lobes triangular; style exserted 0–1 mm beyond anther cone; mature berries 6–10 mm in diameter, dull black	Solanumnigrum L.
27a	Inflorescences with bracteoles present in most individuals; buds narrowly elliptic; berries with more than 30 stone cells	Solanumtriflorum Nutt.
27b	Inflorescences never with bracteoles; buds globose, ovoid or narrowly ellipsoid; berries with 0–14 stone cells	28
28a	Berries with 2–14 stone cells; leaf base strongly attenuate	Solanumhirtulum C.H.Wright
28b	Berries without stone cells; leaf base not strongly attenuate	29
29a	Buds elongate-oblong; calyx lobes broadly deltate to triangular with acute tips; fruiting peduncles strongly bent at the base near junction with the stem; fruiting pedicels thin, reflexed and slightly recurved; seeds 1.2–1.4 mm long and 1.0–1.2 mm wide	Solanumchenopodioides Lam.
29b	Buds globose-subglobose; calyx lobes broadly deltate with rounded tips; fruiting peduncles straight; fruiting pedicels stout, erect and spreading; seeds 2–2.8 mm long and 1.5–1.8 mm wide	Solanumscabrum Mill.

1a	Flowers yellow; anthers tightly connivent and tapering to a beak-like tip; fruit a bright red berry; cultivated tomatoes	2
1b	Flowers white or purple; anthers ellipsoid, not tapering to a beak-like tip; fruit green or whitish green (often with purple stripes)	3
2a	Corolla lobes deltate to triangular; anther cone stout, the style included; berry usually more than 1 cm in diameter (often much larger), fewer than 20 per infructescence; leaflets with serrate margins; cultivated tomato	Solanumlycopersicum L.
2b	Corolla lobes narrowly triangular; anther cone long and narrow, the style exserted; berry less than 1 cm in diameter, more than 20 per infructescence; leaflets with entire margins; cultivated currant tomato	Solanumpimpinellifolium L.
3a	Leaves at most ternate, usually simple; fruit a berry more than 3 cm in diameter; plant not bearing underground tubers; cultivated pepino	Solanummuricatum Aiton
3b	Leaves pinnate; fruit a berry less than 3 cm in diameter; plant bearing underground tubers; cultivated potato	Solanumtuberosum L.

1a	Young flower buds turbinate; calyx densely pubescent within over entire surface; young stems sulcate; axillary leaves absent	Solanumerianthum D.Don
1b	Young flower buds oblong to orbicular; calyx lobes pubescent within only in distal quarter; young stems terete; axillary leaves common	Solanummauritianum Scop.

1a	Young stems and petioles noticeably winged; mature fruit densely pubescent; invasive plant in Tanzanian highlands and South Africa	Solanumrobustum H.Wendl.
1b	Young stems and petioles not markedly winged (terete or slightly ridged); mature fruit glabrous; native or invasive, widespread	2
2a	Flowers with stamens of differing lengths (due either to unequal anthers or unequal filaments or both); arid eastern and north-eastern Africa	3
2b	Flowers with all stamens equal in length; widespread	8
3a	Corolla strongly zygomorphic, with the two lower lobes much larger; flowers often enantiostylous; Canary Islands	4
3b	Corolla only weakly zygomorphic, the lower lobes somewhat but not markedly larger; flowers not enantiostylous; continental Africa	5
4a	Leaves narrowly elliptic to lanceolate; calyx lobes linear and awn-like; corolla always 5-merous; ripe berry orange; Gran Canaria	Solanumlidii Sunding
4b	Leaves ovate; calyx lobes linear; corolla often 4-merous; ripe berry yellow or yellowish green; Tenerife and Gran Canaria	Solanumvespertilio Aiton
5a	Leaves orbicular to reniform, 1.2–2.5 cm long, wider than long; petioles longer than leaves; rare in north-eastern Somalia	Solanumcymbalariifolium Chiov.
5b	Leaves ovate to elliptic or lanceolate, 2–14 cm long, longer than wide; petioles shorter than leaves; arid eastern and north-eastern Africa	6
6a	Stem prickles dense, acicular, less than 0.5 mm wide at base, pale yellow; fruit fully concealed by the accrescent calyx	Solanumcoagulans Forssk.
6b	Stem prickles absent or sparse, if present wider than 1 mm at base, yellow to orange or brown; fruit at least partly exposed	7
7a	Leaves subentire to lobed; anthers of equal length; seeds very dark brown to almost black	Solanummelastomoides C.H.Wright
7b	Leaves entire; one anther much longer than the others; seeds dull yellow to orange-brown	Solanumsomalense Franch.
8a	Flower one per inflorescence, peduncle and rhachis absent; corolla pentagonal, lobed for 1/4–1/3 of the way to the base, 0.9–1.3 cm in diameter; southern Africa	Solanumsupinum Dunal
8b	Flower usually more than one per inflorescence, peduncle and/or rhachis present in at least some inflorescences; corolla usually stellate, lobed for more than 1/3 of the way to the base or, if lobed, for 1/4–1/3 of the way to the base then corolla of long-styled flowers broader than 1.3 cm in diameter; widespread	9
9a	Trichomes on young stems and adaxial (upper) surfaces of the leaves simple only, never stellate	10
9b	Trichomes on young stems and adaxial (upper) surfaces of the leaves stellate	13
10a	Flowers pale bluish purple; anthers 8–12.5 mm; fruit globose or extended into a “nipple”	Solanummammosum L.
10b	Flowers white or greenish white; anthers 5–7.5 mm; fruit globose	11
11a	No stellate hairs anywhere on the plant; fruit bright orange at maturity; seeds winged, 4–6 mm long	Solanumcapsicoides All.
11b	Stellate hairs almost always present on the abaxial (lower) surface of the leaves; fruit yellow at maturity; seeds not winged, 1.8–2.8 mm long	12
12a	Leaf lobes 2–3 pairs, extending 1/3–1/2 distance to the midvein; calyx lobes 5–6.5 mm long, often caudate	Solanumaculeatissimum Jacq.
12b	Leaf lobes 3–5 pairs, extending less than 1/3 of the distance to the midvein; calyx lobes 0.8–2 mm long, acute	Solanumviarum Dunal
13a	Leaves entire, 3–10 times longer than wide; shrubs erect, 1–6 m tall; stem trichomes with partly fused rays; southern Madagascar	14
13b	Leaves entire or lobed, 1–3(8) times longer than wide; shrubs erect, scandent or climbing, 0.2–6 m tall; if leaves entire and more than 3 times longer than wide, then shrub less than 1 m tall and not in southern Madagascar; stem trichomes with free rays	16
14a	Leaves 9–13(20) cm long; corolla 2–3.1 cm in diameter; juvenile branches with dark red prickles; south-eastern Madagascar	Solanumcroatii D’Arcy & Keating
14b	Leaves 1.5–7 cm long; corolla 1–2 cm in diameter; juvenile branches with grey-brown or red-brown prickles; south-western Madagascar	15
15a	Leaf blades 3–7 cm long, concolorous to weakly discolorous, yellow-green	Solanumbumeliifolium Dunal
15b	Leaf blades 1.5–3(4) cm long, strongly discolorous, green-brown adaxially and glaucous abaxially	Solanumheinianum D’Arcy & Keating
16a	Prickles and leaf venation noticeably dark orange to red, contrasting with the yellow-green to red-green leaf surface; southern Madagascar	Solanumpyracanthos Lam.
16b	Prickles and leaf venation not a contrasting colour, yellow to green or red-brown; widespread or naturalised	17
17a	Mature fruit green, never developing to bright yellow, orange or red; plants weakly andromonoecious; fruits 1–1.5 cm in diameter	18
17b	Mature fruit yellow, orange or red; plants hermaphroditic or andromonoecious, fruits 0.5–6 cm in diameter, if andromonoecious, then fruits more than 1.5 cm in diameter	19
18a	Shrub to tree 1.5–9 m tall; young stems and leaves densely ferruginous pubescent; trichomes on the inflorescences and pedicels not glandular; prickles straight to slightly curved	Solanumchrysotrichum Schltdl.
18b	Shrub to 3 m; young stems and leaves pubescent green to brownish; trichomes on the inflorescences and pedicels glandular; prickles curved	Solanumtorvum Sw.
19a	Mature fruit yellow or greenish yellow, 1.5–5(6) cm in diameter; corolla on long-styled flowers (1.3)2–6 cm in diameter; plants mostly andromonoecious	20
19b	Mature fruit orange to red, 0.5–1.2(1.7) cm in diameter; if mature fruit orange (1)1.5–2.5(5) cm in diameter, the plant cultivated; corolla on long-styled flowers 0.8–3 cm in diameter; plants mostly hermaphroditic	45
20a	Cultivated tree 5–10 m tall with copious flowers; corolla bright purple aging to white with both colours usually present in an inflorescence, 5.5–8 cm in diameter	Solanumwrightii Benth.
20b	Wild plants or cultivated vegetables, less than 6 m tall; corolla white to mauve or purple with the colour constant within each individual, 1.6–6 cm in diameter	21
21a	Petiole usually decurrent, leaf bases attenuate (cuneate); trichomes on abaxial leaf surface (if present) stalked with 4(5) rays	22
21b	Petiole never decurrent, leaf bases cordate to cuneate; trichomes on abaxial leaf surface (if present) sessile or stalked with 6–16 rays	23
22a	Plant clearly stellate-pubescent and armed, drying yellow-green to red-brown; wild plant	Solanumdasyphyllum Schumach, & Thonn.
22b	Plant usually glabrous and unarmed, drying a distinctive red-brown colour; cultivated plant	Solanummacrocarpon L.
23a	Climbers or scandent plants	24
23b	Plants erect or rarely semi-scandent	27
24a	Prickles on young stems straight	25
24b	Prickles on young stems strongly curved	26
25a	Prickles pale straw-yellow, to 20 mm long; petiole with sessile stellate trichomes; corolla ca. 2.5 cm in diameter; style strongly curved; Mediterranean northern Africa (adventive from Asia)	Solanumvirginianum L.
25b	Prickles yellow (but not straw-coloured) or brown; petiole trichomes usually stalked; corolla 3.5–5 cm in diameter; style straight; southern Kenya	Solanumnigriviolaceum Bitter
26a	Corolla white, 1.3–1.6 cm in diameter; seeds 5.5–6 mm long; Kenyan mountains	Solanumagnewiorum Voronts.
26b	Corolla mauve to purple, 3.5–6 cm in diameter; seeds 3–4 mm long; eastern and southern Africa, Madagascar	Solanumrichardii Dunal
27a	Calyx inflated, fully covering the berry at maturity; young stems densely covered with straight prickles; northern Madagascar	Solanummahoriense D’Arcy & Rakot.
27b	Calyx not inflated, the berry exposed at maturity; young stems prickly or unarmed; widespread	28
28a	Corolla lobed for more than half way to the base; shrubs or trees up to 6 m; variety of habitats	29
28b	Corolla lobed for half way to the base or less; small shrubs up to 2 m; weeds of open arid environments or cultivated crops; relatives of the eggplant	35
29a	Leaves 8–18 cm long, strongly discolorous; young fruits plain green; seeds 3.5–4.5 mm long; wet upland habitats	30
29a	Leaves 2–8 cm long, concolorous or sometimes discolorous; young fruits striped in different shades of green; seeds 2.2–3.5 mm long; arid upland or lowland habitats	32
30a	Fruit globose, never apiculate, 1.4–1.7 cm in diameter, 4–10 per infructescence; young stems with yellow (when dry) long-stalked trichomes, the stalks 1–3 mm	Solanumthomsonii C.H.Wright
30b	Fruit turbinate or cone-shaped, sometimes globose, usually somewhat apiculate, 2.8–5 x 1.8–4.5 cm, 1–3(5) per infructescence; young stems usually lacking long-stalked yellow (when dry) trichomes	31
31a	Fruit distinctly turbinate or cone-shaped, 2.8–3.7 x 1.8–2.2 cm; leaves on fertile branches elliptic and subentire, 6–8 x 2.5–4 cm, ca. 2.5 times longer than wide; 2100–3000 m elevation	Solanumphoxocarpum Voronts.
31b	Fruit globose, usually somewhat apiculate, 3–5 x 2–4.5 cm; leaves on fertile branches ovate(elliptic) and lobed(subentire), 8–15 x 6–12 cm, 1.5–2 times longer than wide; 1200–2100(3200) m elevation	Solanumaculeastrum Dunal
32a	Prickles straight or occasionally curved; petioles 1/3–2/3 as long as the leaf blades	Solanumpolhillii Voronts.
32b	Prickles on young stems strongly curved; petioles less than 1/3 of the leaf blade length	33
33a	Leaves entire, densely stellate-pubescent on both sides; eastern and north-eastern African highlands	Solanumdennekense Dammer
33b	Leaves lobed, adaxially glabrescent; eastern and north-eastern Africa	34
34a	Leaves 2–4 cm long; curved prickles on young stems 5–10 mm long; eastern and north-eastern Africa	Solanumarundo Matthei
34b	Leaves 6–8 cm long; curved prickles on young stems 1–3 mm long; coastal Kenya, rare	Solanummalindiense Voronts.
35a	Fruit with soft pericarp, in a variety of shapes and colours, edible; common fasciation in the flowers (e.g. increase in the number of flower parts up to 8), inflated ovaries; cultivated species	Solanummelongena L.
35a	Fruit spherical, yellow, with comparatively hard pericarp, not edible; flowers 5-merous; wild plants	36
36a	Leaves lobed with primary and secondary lobes, the primary lobes extending 2/3–3/4 of the distance to the midvein and secondary lobes always present; southern Africa and northern African coasts around the Mediterranean	Solanumlinnaeanum Hepper & P.M-L.Jaeger
36b	Leaves entire or lobed, lobes extending up to 2/3 of the distance to the midvein, secondary lobes usually not present; widespread	37
37a	Leaf margins and venation nearly white and contrasting with greenish red-brown adaxial leaf surface; trichomes on the abaxial surface of the leaves with 10–17 rays; Ethiopian highlands	Solanummarginatum L.f.
37b	Leaf margins and venation the same colour as the rest of the leaf blade; trichomes on the abaxial surface of the leaves with 5–12(15) rays; widespread	38
38a	Leaf lobes apically obtuse to acute, sometimes rounded, sometimes with secondary lobes; lobes 1/4–2/3 of the distance to the midvein; leaves and young stems glabrescent to moderately pubescent	39
38b	Leaf lobes apically rounded, sometimes obtuse, never with secondary lobes; lobes up to 1/3(1/2) of the distance to the midvein; leaves and young stems usually densely pubescent	41
39a	Calyx lobes on long-styled flowers 7–10 mm long, ovate and foliaceous, apically obtuse; South Africa	Solanumumtuma Voronts. & S.Knapp
39b	Calyx lobes on long-styled flowers 4–7 mm long, deltate or long-triangular apically acuminate; northern Africa and Cape Verde Islands	40
40a	Calyx lobes on long-styled flowers 4–7 mm long, deltate, ca. 1/6 as long as the fruit at maturity; continental Africa north of the equator	Solanumcerasiferum Dunal
40b	Calyx lobes on long-styled flowers 6–7 mm long, long triangular, 1/2 to 1/3 as long as the fruit at maturity; Cape Verde Islands (Senegal?)	Solanumrigidum Lam.
41a	Prickles straight; corolla on long-styled flowers 1.8–2.5 cm in diameter; anthers ca. 4.5 mm long; Madagascar; Mauritius, Réunion	Solanuminsanum L.
41b	Prickles curved or straight; corolla on long-styled flowers 2.5–4.5 cm in diameter; anthers 5–9 mm long; widespread	42
42a	Leaves usually entire, sometimes lobed; trichomes on the abaxial leaf surface sessile or with stalks up to 0.1 mm long; fruits 1.5–3 cm diameter	Solanumcampylacanthum Hochst. ex A.Rich.
42b	Leaves lobed; trichomes on the abaxial leaf surface with stalks up to 0.5(1) mm long; fruits 2.5–4.5 cm diameter	43
43a	Leaves velvety red-brown adaxially; calyx lobes on long-styled flowers ovate to oblong, foliaceous, 7–10 mm long	Solanumaureitomentosum Bitter
43b	Leaves yellow-green to green-brown adaxially; calyx lobes on long-styled flowers deltate, usually not foliaceous, 2.5–6 mm long	44
44a	Leaves concolorous to weakly discolorous, indumentum yellowish; leaves ca. 1.5 times longer than wide; young stems terete to angular; north-eastern Africa	Solanumincanum L.
44b	Leaves strongly discolorous, indumentum dirty greenish brown adaxially and whitish yellow abaxially; leaves 1.5–2.5 times longer than wide; young stems with somewhat raised longitudinal ridges; southern Africa	Solanumlichtensteinii Willd.
45a	Leaves on fertile branches with distinct lobes, at least some of the lobes longer than 1/4 of the distance from the midvein to the leaf edge	46
45b	Leaves on fertile branches entire or subentire or with some shallow lobes no longer than 1/4 of the distance from the midvein to the leaf edge	89
46a	Leaves more than 3 times longer than wide	47
46b	Leaves 1–3 times longer than wide	49
47a	Plant unarmed or prickles straight, orange to red; trichomes on the abaxial surfaces of the leaves with (9)12–14 rays	Solanumelaeagnifolium Cav.
47b	Plant densely armed with curved broad-based pale-yellow prickles; trichomes on the abaxial surfaces of the leaves, if present, with 0–8 rays	48
48a	Anthers 2.5–3.2 mm long; trichomes anywhere on the plant with 0–4 rays; South Africa	Solanumsodomaeodes Kuntze
48b	Anthers 5–6.5 mm long; trichomes anywhere on the plant with 5–8 rays; north-eastern Africa	Solanumglabratum Dunal
49a	Leaves with at least some secondary lobing present	50
49b	Leaves lobed once only	51
50a	Flowers 3–7 per inflorescence, mauve to purple; anthers 5.5–7 mm long; South Africa	Solanumrubetorum Dunal
50b	Flowers 6–50 per inflorescence, white; anthers 9–10 mm long; invasive in South Africa and Kenya	Solanumsisymbriifolium Lam.
51a	No prickles visible anywhere on the plant	52
51b	At least some prickles visible on the plant	57
52a	Plant scandent or scrambling, sometimes erect; anthers (4)5–6.5 mm long; inland eastern Africa	Solanumcyaneopurpureum De Wild.
52b	Plant erect; anthers 2.3–5(8.5) mm long; widespread	53
53a	Corolla 1.5–3 cm in diameter; mauve or purple; southern Africa, Indian Ocean islands	54
53b	Corolla 0.9–1.5 cm in diameter; white (only occasionally pale violet); widespread on continent or cultivated	55
54a	Fruiting pedicels deflexed, curved; anthers 3.5–5.2 mm long; South Africa and Namibia	Solanumburchellii Dunal
54b	Fruiting pedicels straight and spreading; anthers 4.5–8.5 mm long; Mauritius and Réunion	Solanumviolaceum Ortega
55a	Inflorescences 2.5–6 cm long, with 5–22 flowers	Solanumanguivi Lam.
55b	Inflorescences 1–2.5 cm long, with 1–4(10) flowers	56
56a	Leaf blades 5–18 cm long, petioles 1–4 cm long; plant cultivated for leaves or fruits, widespread	Solanumaethiopicum L.
56b	Leaf blades 3–8 cm long, petioles 0.5–1.5 cm long; wild plant in southern Africa	Solanumcatombelense Peyr.
57a	Prickles on young stems predominantly curved	58
57b	Prickles on young stems predominantly straight, sometimes straight and reflexed	70
58a	Young prickles and indumentum red; scandent shrubs; Madagascar	59
58b	Young prickles and indumentum yellowish, green or brown; erect or scandent shrubs; widespread (mainland Africa, rarely Madagascar, Indian Ocean Islands)	60
59a	Young stems with a dense covering of long-stalked trichomes and prickles of different lengths; 1000–3000 m elevation	Solanummyoxotrichum Baker
59b	Young stems with a sparse or dense covering of sessile or short-stalked trichomes of uniform lengths; 0–1000 m elevation	Solanumerythracanthum Dunal
60a	Stem trichomes with stalks 0.1–0.4 mm long; anthers 6–10 mm long; coastal eastern Africa	Solanumusaramense Dammer
60b	Stem trichomes sessile or the stalks to 0.1 mm long; anthers 3–8.5 mm long; widespread	61
61a	Plants of the Indian Ocean islands (Mauritius, Réunion, Aldabra)	62
61b	Plants of continental Africa	63
62a	Fruiting pedicels straight and spreading; corolla to 3 cm in diameter; petiole not winged from decurrent leaf base; Mauritius and Réunion	Solanumviolaceum Ortega
62b	Fruiting pedicels curved and deflexed; corolla to 2 cm in diameter; petiole slightly winged from decurrent leaf base; Aldabra (Seychelles)	Solanumaldabrense C.H.Wright
63a	Calyx in flower 7–9 mm long, apically caudate; calyx in fruit 10–12 mm long; trichomes with midpoints much longer that the rays; Tanzanian highlands, rare	Solanuminaequiradians Bitter
63b	Calyx in flower 2–6 mm long, apically acute to acuminate or rarely caudate; calyx in fruit less than 10 mm long; trichomes with the midpoints short than or equal to the rays; widespread	64
64a	Plant always erect; leaves discolorous; corolla 0.8–1.5 cm in diameter, lobed for 1/2–2/3(3/4) of the way to the base	65
64b	Plant often scandent or semi-scandent; leaves usually concolorous; corolla (1)1.5–2.5 cm in diameter, lobed for 2/3 of the way to the base or more	66
65b	Inflorescences 2.5–6 cm long, with 5–22 flowers; polymorphic weed across highland areas of Africa and Madagascar	Solanumanguivi Lam.
65a	Inflorescences 1–2.5 cm long, with 1–4 flowers; southern Africa	Solanumcatombelense Peyr.
66a	Prickles 3–5 mm long; leaf blades 1.5–2.5(9) cm long, leaf base narrow-cuneate to attenuate; South Africa and Namibia	Solanumcapense L.
66b	Prickles 1–4(7) mm long. Leaf blades (1)2.5–14 cm long, leaf base cuneate to truncate; widespread	67
67a	Calyx 2–4 mm long in flower	68
67b	Calyx 4–6 mm long in flower	69
68a	Prickles on young stems 1.5–2(3) mm long; leaves 2.5–5.5 cm long; seeds 2.5–3.5 mm long; inland eastern Africa	Solanumcyaneopurpureum De Wild.
68b	Prickles on young stems 2–4 mm long. Leaves 3–14 cm long; seeds 1.8–2.5 mm long; coastal eastern Africa	Solanumzanzibarense Vatke
69a	Leaves drying yellow-green; petiole 1/4–1/3 of the leaf length; eastern and north-eastern Africa	Solanumhastifolium Hochst. ex Dunal
69b	Leaves drying dark red-brown; petiole 1/3–1/2 of the leaf length; southern Africa	Solanumtorreanum A.E.Gonç.
70a	Inflorescence with more than 10 flowers	71
70b	Inflorescence with 10 or fewer flowers	74
71a	Leaves 1–4(6) cm long; corolla 1.3–2.4 cm in diameter; seeds almost black; north of the equator	Solanumforskalii Dunal
71b	Leaves (5)7–25 cm long; corolla 0.7–1.5 cm in diameter; seeds yellow to orange-brown; widespread	72
72a	Inflorescences 1–2.5 cm long, peduncle 0–2 mm long; trichomes on the young stems with (5)8–20 rays; western Africa	Solanumanomalum Thonn.
72b	Inflorescences 2.5–8 cm long, peduncle 2–30 mm long; trichomes on the young stems with 6–8 rays; widespread	73
73a	Inflorescences branched many times (more than once); Kenya and Tanzania	Solanumusambarense Bitter
73b	Inflorescences unbranched or forked; widespread	Solanumanguivi Lam.
74a	Young prickles almost filiform and easily bendable like bristles, with no firm prickles anywhere on the plant; eastern African savannah	Solanumsetaceum Dammer
74b	Young prickles sturdy when touched; widespread	75
75a	Calyx lobes oblong, foliaceous, apically obtuse; lowland eastern Africa, rare	Solanumlamprocarpum Bitter
75b	Calyx lobes deltate, sometimes long-ovate or narrow-oblong, not clearly foliaceous, apically acute to acuminate; widespread	76
76a	Calyx 7–12 mm long in flower	77
76b	Calyx 2–7 mm long in flower	80
77a	Prickles on young branches 8–16 mm long; leaves elliptic; Ethiopian highlands	Solanummacracanthum A.Rich.
77b	Prickles on young branches 2–7 mm long; leaves ovate; Tanzania, South Africa and Madagascar	78
78a	Corolla lobed for 3/4 of the way to the base or more; trichomes on the young stems with midpoints (0.5)1.5–2.5(3) mm long; Tanzanian highlands	Solanuminaequiradians Bitter
78b	Corolla lobed for 1/2–2/3 of the way to the base; trichomes on the young stems with midpoints 0.15–5 mm long; South Africa and Madagascar	79
79a	Young stems with a dense covering of long-stalked trichomes and prickles of different lengths; Madagascar	Solanummyoxotrichum Baker
79b	Young stems with no bristles, only prickles and trichomes of uniform length; South Africa	Solanumtomentosum L.
80a	Young prickles and indumentum red; pedicels (1)1.5–4 cm long; Madagascar	81
80b	Young prickles and indumentum pale yellow to brown or purple, never red; pedicels 0.2–1(1.4) cm long; mainland Africa, rarely in Madagascar	82
81a	Young stems with a dense covering of long-stalked trichomes and prickles of different lengths; 1000–3000 m elevation	Solanummyoxotrichum Baker
81b	Young stems with a sparse or dense covering of sessile or short-stalked trichomes of uniform lengths; 0–1000 m elevation	Solanumerythracanthum Dunal
82a	Corolla lobed for 3/4 of the way to the base or deeper; plants scrambling or climbing, sometimes erect	83
82a	Corolla lobed for 1/2–2/3 of the way to the base; plants erect, sometimes scandent	86
83a	Prickles on young stems 2–4 mm long; eastern African coastal areas	Solanumzanzibarense Vatke
83b	Prickles on young stems (3)4–13 mm long; arid environments across continental Africa	84
84a	Prickles reflexed; seeds nearly black	Solanumforskalii Dunal
84b	Prickles perpendicular to the stem; seeds pale yellow to orange-brown	85
85a	Leaves 1–2 times longer than wide; leaf lobes to 2/3 of the distance to the midvein; leaves concolorous to strongly discolorous; north-eastern Africa	Solanumadoense Hochst. ex A. Rich.
85b	Leaves 1.5–3 times longer than wide; leaf lobes to 1/2 of the distance to the midvein; leaves concolorous; South Africa	Solanumhumile Dunal
86a	Petiole 1/3–2/3 as long as the leaf blade; South Africa	Solanumtomentosum L.
86b	Petiole 1/6–1/3 as long as the leaf blade; widespread	87
87a	Leaf blades (5)11–25 cm long; inflorescence with 5–22 flowers; common variable highland weed widespread across Africa	Solanumanguivi Lam.
87b	Leaf blades 1.7–9 cm long; inflorescence with 1–6 flowers; southern Africa	88
88a	Leaves elliptic; corolla 1.5–2.2 cm in diameter, mauve to purple	Solanumburchellii Dunal
88b	Leaves ovate, sometimes oblong; corolla 0.9–1.3 cm in diameter, usually white	Solanumcatombelense Peyr.
89a	At least some inflorescences branched several to many times; inflorescence with (10)20–150 flowers; erect shrubs to small trees	90
89b	Inflorescences unbranched or forked; inflorescence with 1–10(20) flowers; scrambling, scandent or erect shrubs	98
90a	Plants with at least some visible prickles or bristles	91
90b	Plants with no prickles or bristles visible	95
91a	Young stems with soft or thin bristles	92
91b	Young stems with firm deltate prickles	93
92a	Stem bristles soft and white, 0.4–0.7 mm wide at base; leaves ca. 2 times longer than wide; 1500 -1800 m elevation; Tanzania	Solanumschliebenii Werderm.
92b	Stem bristles erect purple-black or brown, 0.2–0.4 mm wide at base; leaves 2.5–3.5 times longer than wide; 1800–2600 m elevation; eastern Africa	Solanumschumannianum Dammer
93a	Leaf blades 12–40 cm long, whitish grey underneath with trichomes, falling as white powder when touched; inflorescences with 30–150 flowers; anthers 2.5–3 mm long	Solanumgiganteum Jacq.
93b	Leaf blades 4–10(16) cm long, yellow-green, brown or rarely whitish grey underneath, trichomes not falling when touched; inflorescences with 10–30 flowers; anthers 3.5–6 mm long	94
94a	Leaf base cuneate to acuminate; anthers 3.5–4 mm long; stem trichomes with midpoints 0.4–1(2) mm long; Democratic Republic of the Congo, Rwanda, Uganda, Tanzania; rare	Solanumwittei Robyns
94b	Leaf base rounded, rarely cuneate; anthers 4–6 mm long; stem trichomes with midpoints 0.05–0.2 mm long; widespread	Solanumtettense Klotzsch
95a	Leaves elliptic, with 8–12 pairs of primary veins, 2.5–3.5 times longer than wide	Solanumschumannianum Dammer
95b	Leaves ovate, sometimes elliptic, with 4–8 pairs of primary veins, 1.5–2.5(3) times longer than wide	96
96a	Leaves concolorous; calyx lobes 2–4(5) mm long, long-acuminate; Sudan, Eritrea, Ethiopia, Somalia, 1500–2800 m elevation	Solanumschimperianum Hochst. ex A.Rich.
96b	Leaves discolorous; calyx lobes 1–2 mm long, obtuse to acute, sometimes acuminate; southern Ethiopia, Somalia and further south, 650–1900 m elevation	97
97a	Leaf base cuneate to acuminate; anthers 3.5–4 mm long; stem trichomes with midpoints 0.4–1(2) mm long; Democratic Republic of the Congo, Rwanda, Uganda, Tanzania; rare	Solanumwittei Robyns
97b	Leaf base rounded, rarely cuneate; anthers 4–6 mm long; stem trichomes with midpoints 0.05–0.2 mm long; widespread, common	Solanumtettense Klotzsch
98a	Plants with no prickles visible	99
98b	Plants with at least some visible prickles.	109
99a	Leaves 3–8 times longer than wide, narrow-elliptic or lanceolate, rarely narrow-ovate	100
99b	Leaves 1–3 times longer than wide, orbicular, ovate, obovate, elliptic or oblong	101
100a	Corolla 0.9–1.5 cm in diameter; trichomes on young stems with ca. 8 rays; native plant in eastern and north-eastern Africa, black cotton soils	Solanumlanzae J.-P.LeBrun & Stork
100b	Corolla 2.5–3(5) cm in diameter; trichomes on young stems with 10–14(16) rays; weed in southern Africa and Mediterranean	Solanumelaeagnifolium Cav.
101a	Leaves less than 1.5 times longer than wide, orbicular, ovate or obovate; arid north-eastern Africa	102
101b	Leaves more than 1.5 times longer than wide, ovate, elliptic or oblong; widespread	103
102a	Erect shrub to small tree 1.5–4 m tall; leaves and flowers readily deciduous, so stems often bare; seeds orange-brown	Solanumjubae Bitter
102a	Scandent to erect shrub up to 1 m tall; leaves and flowers not readily deciduous, stems not bare; seeds dark brown to almost black	Solanumcordatum Forssk.
103a	Leaf base attenuate; corolla lobed for ca. 3/4 of the way to the base; trichomes on the young stems with 10–20 rays	104
103a	Leaf base cuneate, rounded or truncate, rarely attenuate; corolla lobed for 1/2–2/3 of the way to the base; trichomes on the young stems with 6–9(12) rays	105
104a	Petioles 1/3–2/3 as long as the adult leaves; flowers 4–8 per inflorescence; seeds 2.8–3.5 mm long; Angola	Solanumpauperum C.H.Wright
104b	Petioles 1/6–1/4 as long as the adult leaves; flowers 8–15 per inflorescence; seeds 3.6–4.8 mm long; eastern and south-eastern Africa	Solanumgoetzei Dammer
105a	Calyx lobes 5–10 mm long in flower, foliaceous, ovate to elliptic; leaf apex rounded, sometimes obtuse; arid north-eastern Africa	Solanumpampaninii Chiov.
105b	Calyx lobes 1–4.5 mm long in flower, not clearly foliaceous, deltate; leaf apex acute or obtuse, sometimes rounded; widespread	106
106a	Scandent shrub; inflorescences 3.5–7 cm long; young stems with stalked trichomes, the stalks 0.1–0.4 mm long; eastern African highlands	Solanumstipitatostellatum Dammer
106b	Erect herb or shrub; inflorescences 1–3.5 cm long; young stems with sessile or stalked trichomes, the stalks up to 0.15 mm long; widespread	107
107a	Fruit (1)1.5–2.5(5) cm in diameter; plant cultivated for leaves or fruits; widespread and common in western and eastern Africa	Solanumaethiopicum L.
107b	Fruit (0.7)0.75–1.1 cm in diameter; wild plant in southern Africa	108
108a	Leaves elliptic; corolla 1.5–2.2 cm in diameter, mauve to purple	Solanumburchellii Dunal
108b	Leaves ovate, sometimes oblong; corolla 0.9–1.3 cm in diameter, usually white	Solanumcatombelense Peyr.
109a	Prickles on young stems predominantly curved	110
109b	Prickles on young stems predominantly straight, sometimes straight and reflexed	125
110a	Most leaves on reproductive branches less than two times longer than wide	111
110b	Most leaves on reproductive branches two times longer than wide or longer	115
111a	Corolla lobed for ca. 3/4 of the way to the base or deeper; seeds dark brown to almost black; continental Africa north of the equator	112
111b	Corolla lobed for ca. 2/3 of the way to the base; seeds yellow to orange-brown; continental Africa south of the equator	113
112a	Inflorescences with 1(2) flowers; trichomes on young stem with 12–18 rays	Solanumcordatum Forssk.
112b	Inflorescences with (1)2–20 flowers; trichomes on young stem with 6–10 rays	Solanumforskalii Dunal
113a	Leaves drying yellowish green; anthers 3–4 mm long; southern Africa	Solanumlitoraneum A.E.Gonç.
113b	Leaves drying reddish brown; anthers (4.5)5.5–8 mm long; Madagascar	114
114a	Young stems with a dense covering of long-stalked trichomes and prickles of different lengths; 1000–3000 m elevation	Solanummyoxotrichum Baker
114b	Young stems with a sparse or dense covering of sessile or short-stalked trichomes of uniform lengths; 0–1000 m elevation	Solanumerythracanthum Dunal
115a	Plant erect, 0.4–1.5 m tall; corolla 0.9–1.4 cm in diameter; anthers 2.5–3.5 mm long	116
115b	Plant scandent, sometimes erect; corolla (1.2)1.5–3 cm in diameter; anthers 4–8 mm long	117
116a	Inflorescence 3–4(6) cm long; trichomes on abaxial surfaces of the leaves with stalks 0.15–0.4 mm long; eastern Africa	Solanummauense Bitter
116b	Inflorescence 1–2.5 cm long; trichomes on abaxial surfaces of the leaves with stalks 0–0.15 mm long; southern Africa	Solanumcatombelense Peyr.
117a	Calyx 7–9 mm long at anthesis, the lobes caudate; trichomes on young stems with midpoints (0.5)1.5–2.5(3) mm long; Tanzanian highlands	Solanuminaequiradians Bitter
117b	Calyx 2–6 mm long at anthesis, the lobes acute to acuminate; trichomes on young stems with midpoints 0–1.5 mm long; widespread	118
118a	Leaves 3–6 times longer than wide, the bases attenuate; arid eastern and north-eastern Africa	Solanumglabratum Dunal
118b	Leaves 2–3 times longer than wide, the bases cuneate to cordate; eastern Africa and Madagascar	119
119a	Corolla (1.8)2–3 cm in diameter; anthers (5.5)6–10 mm long	120
119b	Corolla 1–2(2.4) cm in diameter; anthers 4–6(7) mm long	122
120a	Inflorescences with 1–2(5) flowers; young stems with trichomes sessile or stalked, the stalks up to 0.2 mm long; Madagascar	Solanumerythracanthum Dunal
120b	Inflorescences with 3–10 flowers; young stems with trichomes always stalked, the stalks 0.1–0.4 mm long; eastern Africa	121
121a	Leaves 3–8 cm long, densely stellate-pubescent on both sides; eastern African coasts	Solanumusaramense Dammer
121b	Leaves 6–13 cm long, adaxially glabrescent; eastern African mountains	Solanumstipitatostellatum Dammer
122a	Leaves apically rounded, with thick-stalked trichomes on the adaxial surface; inflorescence with 1–2(3) flowers; eastern Africa	Solanumtaitense Vatke
122a	Leaves apically acute to obtuse, sometimes rounded, without thick-stalked trichomes on the adaxial surface; inflorescence with (1)2–20 flowers	123
123a	Leaves with 2–3 pairs of primary veins; seeds dark brown to almost black; continental Africa north of the equator	Solanumforskalii Dunal
123b	Leaves with 4–6 pairs of primary veins; seeds yellow to orange-brown; continental Africa south of the equator or near the equator	124
124a	Prickles usually under 2 mm long; leaves 2.5–5.5 cm long; trichomes on the leaves and stems with stalks ca. 0.1 mm long; inland eastern Africa	Solanumcyaneopurpureum De Wild.
124b	Prickles over 2 mm long; leaves 3–14 cm long; trichomes on the leaves and stems sessile or with stalks under 0.1 mm long; coastal eastern Africa	Solanumzanzibarense Vatke
125a	Leaves more than two times longer than wide	126
125b	Leaves less than two times longer than wide	130
126a	Corolla 2.5–3(5) cm in diameter; anthers 6–10 mm long; invasive in southern Africa and around the Mediterranean	Solanumelaeagnifolium Cav.
126b	Corolla 0.9–2.3 cm in diameter; anthers 2.5–6 mm long; Ethiopia, Tanzania or further south	127
127a	Prickles on young stems 8–16 mm long; calyx 7–12 mm long at anthesis; Ethiopia	Solanummacracanthum A.Rich.
127b	Prickles on young stems 1–6 mm long; calyx 2.5–7 mm long at anthesis; Tanzania or further south	128
128a	Plant scrambling shrub; leaves almost glabrous, trichomes on the leaves with up to 4 rays; Tanzanian coastal forest, rare (possibly extinct)	Solanumruvu Voronts.
128b	Plant erect; leaves stellate-pubescent, trichomes on the abaxial sides of the leaves with 17–15 rays; southern Africa	129
129a	Leaves elliptic; corolla 1.5–2.2 cm in diameter, mauve to purple	Solanumburchellii Dunal
129b	Leaves ovate, sometimes oblong; corolla 0.9–1.3 cm in diameter, usually white	Solanumcatombelense Peyr.
130a	Leaves on reproductive branches less than 2 cm long	131
130b	Leaves on reproductive branches more than 2 cm long	134
131a	Leaves and flowers predominantly on short shoots, few on main stems; corolla lobed for 1/2–2/3 of the way to the base; seeds yellow to orange-brown; southern Madagascar	132
131b	Leaves and flowers predominantly on main stems, few on short shoots; corolla lobed for ca. 3/4 of the way to the base; seeds dark brown to almost black; continental Africa north of the equator	133
132a	Calyx lobes fused in fruit, ca. 10 mm long, fully covering the mature fruit; leaves ovate	Solanumtoliaraea D’Arcy & Rakot.
132b	Calyx lobes free in fruit, 4–5 mm long, the mature fruit at least partly exposed; leaves orbicular, elliptic or ovate	Solanumbatoides D’Arcy & Rakot.
133a	Inflorescences with 1(2) flowers; trichomes on young stem with 12–18 rays	Solanumcordatum Forssk.
133b	Inflorescences with (1)2–20 flowers; trichomes on young stem with 6–10 rays	Solanumforskalii Dunal
134a	Leaves elliptic	135
134a	Leaves ovate	136
135a	Leaves drying yellow-green; anthers 3.5–5.2 mm long; southern Africa	Solanumburchellii Dunal
135b	Leaves drying reddish brown; anthers 5.5–8 mm long; Madagascar	Solanumerythracanthum Dunal
136a	Anthers 3.2–3.5 mm long; southern Africa	Solanumtomentosum L.
136b	Anthers 4.5–8 mm long; widespread	137
137a	Calyx lobes 3–7 mm long at anthesis	138
137b	Calyx lobes 0.5–3 mm long at anthesis	139
138a	Leaves yellow-green; trichomes on the abaxial sides of the leaves with midpoints 1–2 mm long; Tanzania	Solanuminaequiradians Bitter
138b	Leaves reddish; trichomes on the abaxial sides of the leaves with midpoints to 0.5 mm long; Madagascar	Solanummyoxotrichum Baker
139a	Leaves 6–13 cm long; prickles on young stems 1–2 mm long; highland eastern Africa	Solanumstipitatostellatum Dammer
139b	Leaves 1–5(6) cm long; prickles on young stems 2–10 mm long; continental Africa, north of the equator or Madagascar	140
140a	Pedicels 0.2–1 mm long; seeds almost black; continental Africa, north of the equator	Solanumforskalii Dunal
140b	Pedicels 1.5–2(2.5) cm long; seeds dull yellow to orange-brown; Madagascar	Solanumerythracanthum Dunal