Integrating proteomics and transcriptomics for the identification of potential targets in early colorectal cancer.

Colorectal cancer (CRC) is one of the most common malignancies worldwide. At present, CRC can often be treated upon diagnosis at stage I or II, or when dysplasia is detected; however, 60‑70% of cases are not diagnosed until they have developed into late stages of the disease or until the malignancy is identified. Diagnosis of CRC at an early stage remains a challenge due to the absence of early‑stage‑specific biomarkers. To identify potential targets of early stage CRC, label‑free proteomics analysis was applied to paired tumor‑benign tissue samples from patients with stage II CRC (n=21). A total of 2,968 proteins were identified; corresponding RNA‑Sequencing data were retrieved from The Cancer Genome Atlas‑colon adenocarcinoma. Numerous bioinformatics methods, including differential expression analysis, weighted correlation network analysis, Gene Ontology and protein‑protein interaction analyses, were applied to the proteomics and transcriptomics data. A total of 111 key proteins, which appeared as both differentially expressed proteins and mRNAs in the hub module, were identified as key candidates. Among these, three potential targets [protein‑arginine deiminase type‑2 (PADI2), Fc fragment of IgG binding protein (FCGBP) and phosphoserine aminotransferase 1] were identified from the pathological data. Furthermore, the survival analysis indicated that PADI2 and FCGBP were associated with the prognosis of CRC. The findings of the present study suggested potential targets for the identification of early stage CRC, and may improve understanding of the mechanism underlying the occurrence of CRC.

Introduction

In recent years, a large amount of epidemiological data has indicated that colorectal cancer (CRC) remains a common and lethal cancer (1-5); adenocarcinomas are a common type of CRC. At present, surgery remains the primary procedure for treating patients with CRC, as novel effective treatments have not yet been developed. Additionally, the recurrence rates following surgery in patients with CRC of stages I-III has been increasing (6). This may be overcome by the development of primary and secondary preventative strategies for CRC (7,8). As such, determining early CRC in high-risk populations and identifying targets to inhibit early CRC development are valid approaches. The occurrence and development of CRC are correlated with genetic mutations (9,10). Identifying specific gene mutations and alterations in expression in tumor tissues have been the main focus of cancer research, and have led to developments in immunotherapy (11-13). Previous studies of CRC have mainly involved genomic and transcriptomics analyses (14-16). It is widely documented that proteins are key factors in biological processes; whether gene mutations can alter the expression of proteins is largely unknown. Therefore, a direct comparison of proteomic differences between tumor and normal tissues may provide insight into the development of CRC.

The Cancer Genome Atlas (TCGA) (17) contains extensive data regarding tumor genomes. In addition, the Human Protein Atlas (HPA) provides information regarding tissues, cells and pathology (18-20). TCGA and HPA are open-access, and have made considerable contributions to advances in tumor research. Weighted correlation network analysis (WGCNA) involves the separation of genes with the same expression pattern into the same module (21); thus, different modules represent sets of differentially expression pattern genes. Furthermore, these various modules could be associated with certain features of the data, and those linked to these characteristics of interest can be filtered out.

In the present study, stage II CRC was selected to represent early stage CRC. To identify potential targets of early CRC, TCGA-colon adenocarcinoma (COAD) stage II data were combined with the proteomic data of tumor and adjacent tissues from 21 patients with CRC for analysis.

Materials and methods

Clinical data of patients with stage II CRC. A total of 21 pairs (13 males and 8 females; age ± SD, 60.90±8.26 years) of malignant tissues and adjacent benign or normal tissues from patients diagnosed with stage II CRC were obtained from The Tumor Tissue Bank at the Third Hospital of Jilin University between November 2015 and June 2016. All patients without hepatitis, tuberculosis and HIV did not receive radiotherapy or chemotherapy prior to surgery. Patients provided informed consent before surgery. The present study was approved by the Clinical Research Ethics Committee of the Second Hospital of Jilin University. The experimental scheme applied in the present study is presented in Fig. 1.

Figure 1

Flow chart for identifying potential targets of stage II CRC. CRC, colorectal cancer; TCGA, The Cancer Genome Atlas; COAD, colon adenocarcinoma; RNA-Seq, RNA-Sequencing; FDR, false discovery rate; WGCNA, weighted correlation network analysis; DEP, differentially expressed protein; PPI, protein-protein interaction; GO, Gene Oncology; GSEA, Gene Set Enrichment Analysis.

Protein extraction and filter-aided tryptic digestion. Frozen tissues (~100 mg each) were placed into 2-ml screw-cap tubes pre-filled with ceramic beads (1.4 mm; Roche Diagnostics), followed by the addition of 1 ml lysis buffer [8 M urea, 100 mM Tris, 50 mM dithiothreitol (DTT), 1 mM phenylmethylsul-phonyl fluoride and protease inhibitor cocktail]. Tissue sample homogenization was then performed on a MagNA Lyser Instrument (Roche Diagnostics). The homogenous lysates were centrifuged at 40,000 x g at 4°C for 1 h to isolate the proteins. The protein content of each sample was determined and adjusted by adding the lysis buffer. Subsequently, stage II CRC tissues (CT) and paired adjacent normal tissues (CN) were pooled. The pooled samples were aliquoted and stored at −80°C until use; the two pooled protein samples (CT and CN) were then subjected to proteomics analyses. The protein samples were thawed on ice and further processed using a filter-aided tryptic digestion method, as previously described (22). Briefly, samples were concentrated by centrifugation at 15,000 x g at room temperature for 20 min in 1.5 ml 10 kDa ultrafiltration centrifuge tubes (Pall Corporation). Then, the concentrated samples (<20 µl) were diluted with 200 µl buffer (8 M urea and 50 mM Tris) supplemented with 10 mM DTT and stored at 55°C for 1 h. The samples were centrifuged at 15,000 x g at room temperature for 20 min and then mixed with 200 µl buffer (8 M urea and 50 mM Tris) supplemented with 20 mM iodoacetamide. Following alkylation in the dark at 37°C for 30 min, the protein samples underwent buffer-exchange twice with 50 mM ammonium bicarbonate solution. Digestion of the protein samples was initiated by adding L-1-Tosylamide-2-phenylethyl chloromethyl ketone-modified sequencing-grade trypsin (Promega Corporation) at an enzyme/protein ratio of 1:100. The reaction was conducted at 37°C for ≥15 h and quenched by adding 10% formic acid to a final concentration of 1%. The tryptic digests were subject to centrifugation at 15,000 x g at room temperature for 20 min, and the filtrates were collected and de-salted with C18 Ziptips (EMD Millipore). The purified tryptic peptides were freeze-dried and stored at −80°C until use.

Nano liquid chromatography (LC)-tandem mass spectrometry (MS/MS). The tryptic peptide samples, solubilized in 20 µl 0.1% (vol/vol) trifluoroacetic acid, were analyzed using a TripleTOF5600+ mass spectrometer (AB Sciex) coupled with an Eksigent nanoLC system (AB Sciex). The peptide mixture was separated using a C18 capillary column (ChromXP; SCIEX; 150 mm × 75 µm ×3.0 µm) at 300 nl/min, using a 120 min gradient rendered by solvents A (2% acetonitrile/0.1% formic acid) and B (98% acetonitrile/0.1% formic acid). The entire gradient comprised 1-35% solvent B for 90 min, 35-80% solvent B for 15 min, and 85% solvent B for 15 min. The mass spectrometer, fitted with a PicoView Nanospray source, which does not require a nebulizer gas (PV400; New Objective), was operated under the positive ion mode. Complete MS spectra were acquired for the mass range of 350-1,250 m/z. The proteomics data were collected using information-dependent-acquisition mode by selecting 10 most abundant ions for MS/MS fragmentation under the following conditions: The number of charged ions is 2-5 and the collision energy is applied in the mode of Rolling Collision Energy.

Database searches and data processing. The collected data files (.wiff) were transferred to a data processing workstation. MS data analysis software ProteinPilot 5.0 (AB Sciex) was used for protein database searching against the SwissProt database (ftp://ftp.uniprot.org/pub/databases/uniprot/current_release/knowledgebase/complete/uniprot_sprot.fasta.gz). The parameters were set as follows: i) The protease was selected as trypsin; ii) alkylation of Cys by iodoacetamide; and iii) biological modifications were selected as the ID Focus. The resulting group files were converted into mzIDentML format using the GroupFileExtractor tool affiliated with ProteinPilot (https://download.sciex.com/ProteinPilot_502-relNotes.pdf). Scaffold (version Scaffold_4.8.4; Proteome Software) was used to validate MS/MS-based peptide and protein identifications. Peptide identifications were accepted if they could be established at >73.0% probability to achieve a false discovery rate (FDR) <1.0% by the Scaffold Local FDR algorithm. Protein identifications were accepted if they could be established at >5.0% probability to achieve an FDR <1.0% and contained ≥2 identified peptides. Proteins that contained similar peptides and could not be differentiated based on MS/MS analysis alone were grouped to satisfy the principles of parsimony. Proteins sharing significant peptide data were grouped into clusters. Spectral counting, which refers to the total number of spectra identified for a protein, was used to quantitatively estimate protein abundance in the proteomics dataset.

RNA sequencing data acquisition. The mRNA expression profiles of TCGA-COAD- Fragments Per Kilobase of transcript per Million mapped reads (FPKM) were downloaded from TCGA (https://cancergenome.nih.gov/) (17). The datasets numbers are presented in Fig. S1. In the present study, there were 226 samples, including 41 normal tissue normal samples and 185 COAD stage II samples. The Encyclopedia of DNA Elements (23) (GRCh38; V22) catalog (https://www.gencodegenes.org/releases/22.html) was used as a reference to identify mRNAs. Briefly, 19,990 mRNAs from the RNA-Sequencing (RNA-Seq) data were extracted. The data were downloaded from R Studio v1.2.1335 (https://www.rstudio.com/products/rstudio/download/#download) using R package TCGAbiolinks (24).

Differentially expressed protein (DEP) selection. The 'edgeR' package (25,26) was used to select DEPs between CT and CN. The FDR P-value was corrected by the Benjamini-Hochberg method (26). The selection criteria of DEPs were FDR P-value <0.05 and fold change (FC) >4. Then, the distribution of DEPs were presented as heatmaps and volcano plots using the ggplot2 package (27) in R.

Construction of a scale-free network construction by WGCNA. To link proteomics data with mRNA data, only genes overlapping in the proteomics and mRNA data were selected for subsequent WGCNA analysis. WGCNA (21) was used to analyze RNA-Seq data and two main parts comprised this analysis. In the first part, the correlation coefficients between any two mRNAs were calculated to determine whether two mRNAs have similar expression patterns. WGCNA employs correlation coefficient weights to construct a scale-free network. The weighted gene co-expression network stresses high correlations at the cost of low correlations by increasing the absolute value of the correlation to a power β ≥1 (soft thresholding). The best-suited soft threshold value (β) was selected to build the scale-free network. Then, the scale-free network distribution could be tested. In the second part, the hierarchical clustering tree was constructed by using the correlation coefficients between mRNAs. Based on the weighted correlation coefficient of mRNAs, mRNAs were classified according to their expression pattern, and mRNAs with similar patterns were grouped into the same module. Subsequently, the module-trait association was determined by combining the sample information. A correlation test P-value or a regression-based P-value was used for evaluating the statistical significance between xi and trait (21).

Gene Ontology (GO) enrichment analysis of key genes. DEPs from proteomics data were screened; in addition, the hub gene module of mRNAs was determined. Genes that appeared as both DEPs and mRNAs of the hub module were defined as key genes. GO enrichment analysis (28) comprised biological process (BP), cellular component and molecular function; BP was selected to understand the general function of key genes. Then, 'clusterProfiler' (29) was used for GO enrichment analysis. The top 15 GO terms with the highest significance following enrichment were chosen.

Construction of a protein-protein interaction (PPI) network. A PPI network of key genes was constructed using the STRING v11.0 (30,31). Subsequently, Cytoscape v3.6.0 (https://cytoscape.org/download.html) was used to present the PPI network; default settings of the Cytoscape MCODE plug-in (http://apps.cytoscape.org/apps/mcode) were applied. The key cluster and seed node of each cluster were then obtained. These seed nodes were considered as critical targets in the PPI network.

Pathological images and survival analysis. The HPA (https://www.proteinatlas.org/) is a free and open database comprising three sub-atlases: The tissue, cell and the pathology atlases, which provide a large amount of public data available for cancer research (18-20). To screen clinically important molecules from critical targets, pathological images were obtained and survival analysis was conducted based on TCGA-COAD clinical data in the HPA database (https://www.proteinatlas.org/humanproteome/pathology/colorectal+cancer). Normal colonic tissue contains epithelial cells, glandular cells and peripheral nerves/ganglia. Of note, the tumor employed for analysis was adenocarcinoma; thus, the clinical significance of each potential target was determined based on the immunohistochemistry analysis of glandular cells in normal tissue. Additionally, Kaplan-Meier analysis revealed a correlation between the expression levels of mRNA and patient survival; P-values were obtained using a log-rank test. Based on the FPKM value of each gene, the patients were classified into two groups and their prognoses were examined. In the analysis, genes with low expression were excluded, such as those with a median expression among samples with FPKM <1. The prognosis of each group of patients was examined by Kaplan-Meier survival estimators, and the survival outcomes of the two groups were compared by log-rank tests. To choose the best FPKM cut-offs for grouping the patients most significantly, all FPKM values from the 20th to 80th percentiles were used to group the patients; significant differences in the survival outcomes of the groups were examined and the value yielding the lowest log-rank P-value was selected (https://www.proteinatlas.org). The data used for the survival analysis included all the TCGA-COAD data in the HPA database.

Statistical analysis. Using the 'ggstatsplot' package (https://github.com/IndrajeetPatil/ggstatsplot/issues) in R, further statistical analysis of the critical targets was conducted to interpret pathological images and survival results. P-values were obtained by an independent samples t-test. The statistical significance cut-off level was P<0.05.

Gene Set Enrichment Analysis (GSEA) and protein classes of potential targets. To verify the biological function of potential targets, their expression levels were used to classify samples into high- and low-expression groups. Kyoto Encyclopedia of Genes and Genomes (v6.2) (32) enrichment analysis was conducted using GSEA v3.0 (33,34). The mRNA data of TCGA-COAD stage II were used for the GSEA, and these mRNAs were present in both the proteomics and transcriptomics data. The parameters of the software were set to default. The normalized enrichment score (NES) value and the P-value of the enriched pathways were used to confirm the accuracy of the results. |NES| >1 and P<0.05 were used to filter the pathways. Then, the 'ggplot2' and 'ggrepel' packages (https://github.com/slowkow/ggrepel/issues) were applied to present the results in the R platform. Meanwhile, the protein classes were queried using the HPA database (https://www.proteinatlas.org/).

Results

Distribution of protein expression regulation. In total, 2,968 proteins were identified in the stage II CRC proteomics data. Most of the identified proteins (2,846 items) were identified in TCGA-COAD transcriptome data (Fig. 1). 328 upregulated DEPs and 155 downregulated DEPs (P<0.05; FC >4) were reported (Fig. 2).

Figure 2

Distribution of DEPs. (A) A heatmap of DEPs of stage II CRC. The horizontal axis represents the name of the sample, while the vertical axis indicates the genes. (B) A volcano plot of DEPs of stage II CRC. The horizontal axis represents the 'log2Fold Change', while the vertical axis indicates the '-log10FDR'. P<0.05; Fold Change >4. DEPs, differentially expressed proteins; CRC, colorectal cancer; FDR, false discovery rate.

Construction of a scale-free network and screening for hub modules. In the present study, 2,846 coincident genes coexisted in stage II CRC proteomics and TCGA-COAD data. The hierarchical clustering tree revealed the similarity of different samples. The results demonstrated that the cancer tissue and normal sample had apparent heterogeneity (Fig. S1). In addition, WGCNA was used to construct a scale-free network, which was built with β=8 (Fig. S2A-D). A total of four gene modules (blue, brown, turquoise and grey) were generated; the majority of the genes were summarized into the 'turquoise module' (Fig. S2E).

According to the module-trait association, the 'blue' module with the highest correlation coefficient was selected for subsequent analysis (Fig. 3A). Gene significance (GS) was used to measure the degree of association between protein and trait. Module membership (MM) was used to determine the location of a global network. GS versus MM reflected the relationship between characteristics and proteins. The results revealed that the 'blue module' was essential (Fig. 3B and C).

Figure 3

Module-trait association and members of a module versus gene significance of the hub module. (A) Module-trait association of data. The first row of each cube represents the correlation coefficient between the module and the trait, and the second row indicates the significance of the correlation coefficient. The correlation coefficient is presented by the color of the cube; red indicates positive correlation, while green represents negative correlation. (B) Members of the blue modules vs. gene significance for normal. (C) Members of the blue module vs. gene significance for stage II COAD. COAD, colon adenocarcinoma; ME, module eigengene.

GO enrichment analysis of key genes. There were 111 key genes derived from the overlapping of DEPs and mRNAs of the 'blue' module. Then, BPs associated with these genes were identified by GO enrichment analysis; only the top 15 most significant GO terms were used to determine the general function of these genes. A total of 12/15 GO terms were mainly involved in immunity, including 'neutrophil degranulation', 'neutrophil activation involved in immune response', 'neutrophil activation', 'neutrophil mediated immunity', 'lymphocyte mediated immunity', 'leukocyte migration', 'B cell mediated immunity', 'immunoglobulin mediated immune response', 'protein activation cascade', 'complement activation, classical pathway', 'humoral immune response mediated by circulating immunoglobulin' and 'complement activation'. 'Complement activation' was the most significant. The remaining 3/15 GO terms were involved in metabolic pathways, including 'bicarbonate transport' with the highest significance (Fig. 4).

Figure 4

GO enrichment analysis of key genes. (A) Top 15 GO terms listed by the count of genes associated with the GO term. The color of the dot indicated the adjusted P-value; red indicated higher significance in association with the GO term. (B) Top 15 GO terms. The horizontal axis presents the genes associated with the GO term; genes of the same GO term were clustered. GO, Gene Ontology.

Construction of PPI networks and identification of critical targets. Based on the STRING database, a PPI network of associated key genes was built. Using the MCODE plug-in, six clusters were selected in the PPI network, including protein-arginine deiminase type-2 (PADI2), Fc fragment of IgG binding protein (FCGBP), GAR1 ribonucleoprotein (GAR1), phosphoserine aminotransferase 1 (PSAT1), electron-transfer flavoprotein-ubiquinone oxidoreductase (ETFDH) and methyltransferase-like 7A (METTL7A), which were the seed nodes in each cluster (Fig. 5).

Figure 5

Protein-protein interaction network of stage II CRC. The six key clusters are presented as different colors; the seed node of the cluster is presented as a diamond. The color of the inner ring of the node indicates the fold change in proteomics data. The intensity of the outer circle indicates the fold change in the mRNA. CRC, colorectal cancer; COAD, colon adenocarcinoma; PADI2, protein-arginine deaminase type-2; FCGBP, Fc fragment of IgG binding protein; GAR1, GAR1 ribonucleoprotein; PSAT1, phosphoserine aminotransferase; ETFDH, electron-transfer flavoprotein-ubiquinone oxidoreductase; METTL7A, methyltransferase-like 7A.

Pathological images and statistics. To verify the clinical role of these critical targets, pathological images (Fig. 6) and statistical analysis (Fig. 7) of PADI2 (P<0.001 in RNA-Seq and P<0.001 in proteomics), FCGBP (P<0.001 in RNA-Seq and P<0.001 in proteomics), GAR1 (P<0.001 in RNA-Seq and P=0.020 in proteomics), PSAT1 (P<0.001 in RNA-Seq and P=0.003 in proteomics) and ETFDH (P<0.001 in RNA-Seq and P=0.108 in proteomics) were obtained, but not for METTL7A. Of note, the pathological images of PADI2, FCGBP and PSAT1 were notably different from those of normal colon tissues (Figs. 6 and 7). Additionally, PADI2 (P=0.0084) and FCGBP (P=0.0031) were associated with the prognosis of COAD (Fig. 8).

Figure 6

Pathological images of critical targets. The pathological and normal images of (A) PADI2, (B) FCGBP, (C) GAR1, (D) PSAT1 and (E) ETFDH. The information was obtained from the Human Protein Atlas. Magnification, x20. PADI2, protein-arginine deaminase type-2; FCGBP, Fc fragment of IgG binding protein; GAR1, GAR1 ribonucleoprotein; PSAT1, phosphoserine aminotransferase; ETFDH, electron-transfer flavoprotein-ubiquinone oxidoreductase; CRC, colorectal cancer.

Figure 7

Statistical analysis of critical targets. Statistical analysis of (A) PADI2 (P<0.001 in RNA-Seq and P<0.001 in proteomics), (B) FCGBP (P<0.001 in RNA-Seq and P<0.001 in proteomics), (C) GAR1 (P<0.001 in RNA-Seq and P=0.020 in proteomics), (D) PSAT1 (P<0.001 in RNA-Seq and P=0.003 in proteomics) and (E) ETFDH (P<0.001 in RNA-Seq and P=0.108 in proteomics). PADI2, protein-arginine deaminase type-2; FCGBP, Fc fragment of IgG binding protein; GAR1, GAR1 ribonucleoprotein; PSAT1, phosphoserine aminotransferase; ETFDH, electron-transfer flavoprotein-ubiquinone oxidoreduc-tase; RNA-Seq, RNA-Sequencing; COAD, colon adenocarcinoma.

Figure 8

Survival analysis. (A) PADI2 (P=0.0084) was associated with prognosis in stage II CRC. (B) FCGBP (P=0.0031) was associated with prognosis in stage II CRC. The information was obtained from the Human Protein Atlas. CRC, colorectal cancer; PADI2, protein-arginine deaminase type-2; FCGBP, Fc fragment of IgG binding protein.

Biological function and protein classes of potential gene targets. The results of the GSEA indicated that alterations in PADI2 were most likely to affect 'fatty acid metabolism', changes in FCGBP were most likely to influence 'ubiquitin mediated proteolysis' and alterations in PSAT1 were most likely to lead to changes in the 'purine metabolism' pathway (Fig. 9). In the HPA database, PADI2 was predicted as an intracellular protein; FCGBP was predicted as a secreted protein and an intracellular protein, while PSAT1 was determined to be a plasma protein and a predicted intracellular protein.

Figure 9

Gene Set Enrichment Analysis of potential targets. (A) Biological function of PADI2. (B) Biological function of FCGBP. (C) Biological function of PSAT1. The size of the dot indicates the number of enriched genes. The red dots indicate that the function was facilitated by the potential targets, while dark green dots indicate that the function was inhibited by potential targets. PADI2, protein-arginine deaminase type-2; FCGBP, Fc fragment of IgG binding protein; PSAT1, phosphoserine aminotransferase; KEGG, Kyoto Encyclopedia of Genes and Genomes; NES, normalized enrichment score.

Discussion

In the present study, potential targets (PADI2, FCGBP and PSAT1) were identified in stage II CRC. In addition, pathological images and survival analysis confirmed the function of these targets. A large amount of RNA-Seq data were accumulated from previous studies (35-37); at present, few CRC-related proteomics analyses have been conducted to the best of our knowledge. In the present study, WGCNA was conducted to analyze RNA-Seq data. WGCNA focused on the expression pattern, while the differential expression analysis revealed differences between tumor and normal tissue. The information obtained from the data was extracted by selecting the most appropriate method of analysis. Although the number of samples was low, differences in the proteomics data of 21 patients with stage II CRC were analyzed. In addition, stage II CRC stage-related key genes were screened by determining overlapping DEPs and mRNAs in the hub module. Of note, proteins mainly execute biological processes; alterations in proteins can reflect dysfunctional biological processes in cancer. Proteomics and RNA-Seq data were combined prior to screening potential targets in stage II CRC. The GO enrichment analysis revealed that the activation of the immune system is vital in stage II CRC, involving regulation of neutrophil and 'complement activation' in particular. On the contrary, inflammatory cells are an essential part of the tumor microenvironment, especially neutrophils (38,39). A previous study demonstrated that the density of tumor-associated neutrophils in late CRC was significantly lower than early stage CRC (40). Of note, it has been suggested that complement activation may facilitate the development of CRC (41-43). In addition, the presence of neutrophils was associated with the prognosis of this disease (44-46).

In the present study, the PPI network revealed the expression of components between the proteomics and RNA-Seq data to be similar. A total of six critical targets (PADI2 in cluster 1 and FCGBP in cluster 2) were selected from the PPI network that was constructed with key genes; five of the key targets were identified in the HPA database. Furthermore, PADI2, FCGBP and PSAT1 notably differed between the pathological images and the normal tissue images; PADI2 and FCGBP were associated with prognosis. Through signal-gene GSEA, PADI2 tended to affect 'fatty acid metabolism'; FCGBP changes were most likely to influence 'ubiquitin mediated proteolysis'; and PSAT1 changes were most likely to lead to changes in the 'purine metabolism' pathway.

Certain findings of the present study were consistent with previous literature. PADI2 was downregulated in CRC tissue; the occurrence of early CRC has been associated with downregulated PADI2 (47,48) and indicated poor prognosis (49,50). It was demonstrated that PADI2 could enhance the effect of nitazoxanide in promoting β-catenin citrullination and inhibiting Wnt signaling in cancer, and this effect was observed in CRC (51). It was previously identified that FCGBP was associated with immunity as a component of intestinal mucus, which forms the first-line of defense in the gastrointestinal tract (52,53). Previous studies have revealed that transforming growth factor-β (TGF-β) molecules were involved in the inhibition of FCGBP expression, which in turn affected the occurrence of various cancer types, including CRC (54), gallbladder cancer (55) and head and neck squamous-cell carcinoma (56). Additionally, cross talk between the Wnt and TGF-β signaling pathways has been reported to be involved in regulating epithelial-mesenchymal transition (57,58). Wnt and TGF-β were associated with consensus molecular subtypes of CRC (59). Of note, PADI2 and FGCBP were particularly prominent in the present results. In addition, PSAT1 was upregulated in CRC tissue, and overexpression of PSAT1 could promote the progression of CRC (60,61). Based on the HPA database, PADI2 was predicted as an intracellular protein; FCGBP was predicted as a secreted protein and an intracellular protein, while PSAT1 was determined to be a plasma protein and a predicted intracellular protein. Whether these potential targets in the serum were similar to those in cancer tissue remain unknown; however, PADI2 and FCGBP may be considered as potential biomarkers for the prognosis of CRC. There were some limitations of the present study. The proteomics data were derived from Chinese patients and the mRNA expression data were derived from TCGA-COAD (including African American, Caucasian and Asian). While the ethnic differences could have potential effects. Therefore, the analysis was selected to assess the two types of data to ensure that the potential target screened are meaningful. However, functional enrichment analysis of key genes only provides more general results. The function of the gene is instructive for further research. Although experimental validation was not performed in the present study, a single-gene GSEA was conducted to obtain more accurate functional annotations.

In summary, three potential early stage CRC-related targets (PADI2, FCGBP and PSAT1) were identified by combining proteomics and transcriptomics data. These targets could be applied in screening for early stage CRC. Furthermore, the present findings may provide a basis for further investigation into the mechanism underlying the occurrence of CRC.