Plasticity of dendritic spines: Molecular function and dysfunction in neurodevelopmental disorders.

Dendritic spines are tiny postsynaptic protrusions from a dendrite that receive most of the excitatory synaptic input in the brain. Functional and structural changes in dendritic spines are critical for synaptic plasticity, a cellular model of learning and memory. Conversely, altered spine morphology and plasticity are common hallmarks of human neurodevelopmental disorders, such as intellectual disability and autism. The advances in molecular and optical techniques have allowed for exploration of dynamic changes in structure and signal transduction at single-spine resolution, providing significant insights into the molecular regulation underlying spine structural plasticity. Here, I review recent findings on: how synaptic stimulation leads to diverse forms of spine structural plasticity; how the associated biochemical signals are initiated and transmitted into neuronal compartments; and how disruption of single genes associated with neurodevelopmental disorders can lead to abnormal spine structure in human and mouse brains. In particular, I discuss the functions of the Ras superfamily of small GTPases in spatiotemporal regulation of the actin cytoskeleton and protein synthesis in dendritic spines. Multiple lines of evidence implicate disrupted Ras signaling pathways in the spine structural abnormalities observed in neurodevelopmental disorders. Both deficient and excessive Ras activities lead to disrupted spine structure and deficits in learning and memory. Dysregulation of spine Ras signaling, therefore, may play a key role in the pathogenesis of multiple neurodevelopmental disorders with distinct etiologies.