Electrochemical cardiovascular platforms: Current state of the art and beyond.

Cardiovascular diseases (CVD) remain the leading cause of death within industrialized nations as well as an increasing cause of mortality and morbidity in many developing countries. Smoking, alcohol consumption and increased level of blood cholesterol are the main CVD risk factors. Other factors, such as the prevalence of overweight/obesity and diabetes, have increased considerably in recent decades and are indirect causes of CVD. Among CVDs, the acute coronary syndrome (ACS) represents the most common cause of emergency hospital admission. Since the prognosis of ACS is directly associated with timely initiation of revascularization, missed, misdiagnosis or late diagnosis have unfavorable medical implications. Early ACS diagnosis can reduce complications and risk of recurrence, finally decreasing the economic burden posed on the health care system as a whole. To decrease the risk of ACS and related CVDs and to reduce associated costs to healthcare systems, a fast management of patients with chest pain has become crucial and urgent. Despite great efforts, biochemical diagnostic approaches of CVDs remain difficult and controversial medical challenges as cardiac biomarkers should be rapidly released into the blood at the time of ischemia and persistent for a sufficient length of time to allow diagnostics, with tests that should be rapid, easy to perform and relatively inexpensive. Early biomarker assessments have involved testing for the total enzyme activity of aspartate aminotransferase (AST), lactate dehydrogenase (LDH) and creatine kinase (CK), which cardiac troponins being the main accepted biomarkers for diagnosing myocardial injury and acute myocardial infarction (AMI). To allow rapid diagnosis, it is necessary to replace the traditional biochemical assays by cardiac biosensor platforms. Among the numerous of possibilities existing today, electrochemical biosensors are important players as they have many of the required characteristics for point-of-care tests. Electrochemical based cardiac biosensors are highly adapted for monitoring the onset and progress of cardiovascular diseases in a fast and accurate manner, while being cheap and scalable devices. This review outlines the state of the art in the development of cardiac electrochemical sensors for the detection of different cardiac biomarkers ranging from troponin to BNP, N-terminal proBNP, and others.