Socio-demographic inequalities in cigarette smoking in Indonesia, 2007 to 2014.

The prevalence of smoking in Indonesia is one of the highest in the world. Since 2007, some tobacco control policies have been implemented by the Indonesian government. However, evidence on the effectiveness of such policies at reducing tobacco use in Indonesia is scarcely available. Using both cross-sectional and longitudinal analysis of individual and household data from two waves of the Indonesia Family Life Survey (IFLS), this study explored changes in smoking patterns among Indonesian adults between 2007 and 2014 controlling for sociodemographic factors. Overall, there was no statistically significant change in the prevalence of smoking between 2007 and 2014. However, cigarettes became more affordable. Smokers in 2014 consumed more cigarettes (β: 0.95; 0.73, 1.17) and spent more money on cigarettes (β: IDR 2775; IDR 1124, IDR 4426) compared to those in 2007. Males, individuals <55 years old and those with lower levels of education had a higher likelihood of being smokers in 2014. Respondents with lower education levels and those under 26 years of age had higher odds of initiating smoking during the study period. Similarly, smoking cessation between 2007 and 2014 was more likely among respondents with higher levels of education and aged above 40 years. In conclusion, the implementation of tobacco control measures does not appear to have had a positive impact on smoking behaviours among adults in Indonesia between 2007 and 2014. Instead, cigarette consumption increased differentially across socio-demographic groups. Hence, tailored tobacco control interventions targeting the most socially disadvantaged population may be necessary in Indonesia.