Acyl Glycosides through Stereospecific Glycosyl Cross-Coupling: Rapid Access to C(sp3)-Linked Glycomimetics.

Replacement of a glycosidic bond with hydrolytically stable C-C surrogates is an efficient strategy to access glycomimetics with improved physicochemical and pharmacological properties. We describe here a stereoretentive cross-coupling reaction of glycosyl stannanes with C(sp2)- and C(sp3)-thio(seleno)esters suitable for the preparation C-acyl glycosides as synthetic building blocks to obtain C(sp3)-linked and fluorinated glycomimetics. First, we identified a set of standardized conditions employing a Pd(0) precatalyst, CuCl additive, and phosphite ligand that provided access to C-acyl glycosides without deterioration of anomeric integrity and decarbonylation of the acyl donors (>40 examples). Second, we demonstrated that C(sp3)-glycomimetics could be introduced into the anomeric position via a direct conversion of C1 ketones. Specifically, the conversion of the carbonyl group into a CF2 mimetic is an appealing method to access valuable fluorinated analogues. We also illustrate that the introduction of other carbonyl-based groups into the C1 position of mono- and oligosaccharides can be accomplished using the corresponding acyl donors. This protocol is amenable to late-stage glycodiversification and programmed mutation of the C-O bond into hydrolytically stable C-C bonds. Taken together, stereoretentive anomeric acylation represents a convenient method to prepare a diverse set of glycan mimetics with minimal synthetic manipulations and with absolute control of anomeric configuration.

Introduction

Oligosaccharides are one of the most abundant biopolymers characterized by a number of activities ranging from the storage of energy to the use as small-molecule drugs.[1,2] The effective utilization of carbohydrates in the design of novel therapeutics, however, is restricted by a labile glycosidic bond—a linkage connecting two or more saccharides through the C1 carbon, which is easily cleaved under biological conditions.[3−7] Some of the most successful approaches taken toward overcoming this lability focus on replacing the problematic C–O bond with more robust C–C surrogates. Given their enhanced resilience to enzymatic and hydrolytic cleavage, C-analogues to natural saccharides (C-glycosides) emerged as a privileged class of molecules with a diverse range of potential applications. Within this class, C-alkyl glycosides constitute the subset of oligosaccharides and glycoconjugates retaining a C(sp3) linkage at the anomeric carbon. Noteworthy representatives of this subclass are glycosides with a CH2-linkage (e.g., 1,[8,9]2,[10] and 3(11)) and, more recently, surrogates containing a CF2 group (4).[12−17]

In comparison to the well-developed applications of organometallics in C(sp2) glycoside synthesis, the use of conventional, transition-metal catalyzed coupling methods to prepare C-alkyl glycosides is relatively rare. C–C bond formation at the C1 of C(sp3)-hybridized glycosyl halides with alkyl metal reagents suffers from a competing β-elimination pathway, which, in addition to difficulties with controlling anomeric stereoselectivity, make C-glycosylation one of the more challenging synthetic endeavors. Gagné and co-workers reported a Negishi cross-coupling approach of glycosyl halides to furnish C-alkyl glycosides in moderate yields and anomeric selectivities.[18−20] While their work highlights an important achievement in this underdeveloped area, the narrow scope of saccharide substrates and poor functional group tolerance limits their method’s practical utilization in complex carbohydrate synthesis. On the basis of our previous studies on glycosyl cross-coupling,[21−23] we decided to pursue an indirect approach to prepare C-alkyl glycosides. We envisaged that the stereocontrolled introduction of a C(sp3) anomeric linkage could be accomplished through the installation of a handle that could be further elaborated to furnish the targeted product. C-glycosyl ketones (5) represent an ideal scaffold from which C(sp3)-glycomimetics can be accessed (Scheme B). Given the unique position of C-glycosyl ketones as versatile building blocks for target-specific C(sp3)-glycodiversification through a reductive or deoxyfluorination methods, and as interesting bioactive species in their own right (e.g., scleropentasides[24] with antioxidant activities), our investigation centered around direct access to this class of key building blocks.

Scheme 1

(A) Selected Bioactive C(sp3)-Linked Glycosides and (B) Targeted Transformations of C-Acyl Glycosides

Several strategies for the anomeric acylation of carbohydrates are known, utilizing both direct and indirect approaches to access glycosyl ketones (Scheme ). For example, anomeric acylation has been accomplished via a direct method using radical conditions with variable selectivities.[25,26] Another direct approach involves the reductive coupling of an oxonium equivalent with an acyl donor,[27,28] affording high selectivities but only for the substrates equipped with participating groups. These direct methods largely result in suboptimal dr and do not meet, in the current form, the stringent criteria of anomeric selectivities necessary for preparative carbohydrate chemistry. In terms of indirect approaches, a neighboring group that can direct the outcome of the acylation step, similar to O-glycosylation reactions, can provide high 1,2-trans selectivities. This strategy was demonstrated in the addition reactions of a cyanide followed by reduction (Scheme B).[11,29] These indirect protocols are plagued by a competitive glycal formation.[29] Other methods toward C-acyl glycosides involve benzothiazole manipulations,[30] vinylation and oxidative cleavage of the olefins,[31] hydroacylation of glycals,[32] and reactions involving C1 organolithium intermediates[33,34] but require additional synthetic steps to afford glycosyl ketones. Despite these recent advancements, the absence of a general and predictable method for stereospecific anomeric acylation remains a major methodological gap preventing greater investigation into the biology and applications of these compounds as viable precursors to C(sp3) glycomimetics.

Scheme 2

Selected Methods for C1 Acylation of Saccharides

(A) Nickel-catalyzed reductive coupling of glycosyl bromides and carboxylic acids. (B) Reactions of glyconitriles with organometallic reagents. (C) Synthesis of C-acyl glycosides through Ni/photoredox dual catalysis. (D) Stereoretentive cross-coupling reaction of glycosyl stannanes with C(sp2)- and C(sp3)-thioesters.

Herein, we report a new methodology for the programmed synthesis of C-glycosyl ketones capitalizing on a stereospecific cross-coupling reaction of anomeric stannanes[21−23,35−38] with thio- and selenoesters, resulting in exclusive control of anomeric configuration for both anomers of various saccharides (Scheme D). We further demonstrate the utility of C-glycosyl ketones as important building blocks in the preparation of relevant C(sp3)-glycomimetics using reductive and deoxyfluorination methods to afford several examples of CH2- and CF2-linked glycosides.

Results and Discussion

Reaction Development

On the basis of the previous studies on acylation of C(sp3) nucleophiles,[39−52] we investigated a reaction of d-glucose 15 with various acyl donors (Table ). From the outset of the catalyst identification studies, we aimed to achieve broad substrate compatibility. We hypothesized that the stereoretentive conditions established for the d-glucose β-anomer could be translated to the α anomer as well as other sugars. The key challenge of this process is controlling the competitive formation of d-glucal at either the stage of C1 stannane or other C1 organometallic intermediates (organocopper or organopalladium).

Table 1

Optimization of Glycosyl Acylation Reactiona

Reaction conditions: thioester 16 (0.1 mmol), anomeric stannane 15 (2.0 equiv), Pd(PPh3)4 (20 mol %), CuCl (3 or 4 equiv), and anh. 1,4-dioxane (2 mL) under N2, 110 °C, 48 h.

Isolated yield.

Thioester 16 (2 equiv), anomeric stannane 15 (1 equiv).

15 (3 equiv), 72 h.

96 h.

3 equiv of copper source.

4 equiv of copper source. CuTc – copper(I) thiophene-2-carboxylate; dcype – 1,2-bis(dicyclohexylphosphine)ethane; dba – dibenzylideneacetone.

First, we surveyed reactions with Pd(PPh3)4 (10 mol %) and CuCl (3 equiv). While aromatic solvents typically suppress glycal formation,[21] in the case of anomeric acylation, PhMe resulted in a low yield of 17, likely due to the poor solubility of CuCl (entries 1–3). Changing the solvent to 1,4-dioxane resulted in an increase of the yield of 17 (56%, entry 3). Other copper counterions were screened (entries 4–6), but they only had detrimental effects on the formation of 17 and were thus excluded from further optimization studies. It is worth noting that replacement of CuCl with CuTc or CuOP(O)Ph2[46] resulted in the formation of the hydrogenated side product in modest yields (entries 7 and 8). On the basis of the previous observations that phosphine ligands can control the rate of the β-elimination of the C2 groups,[21] we tested a series of mono- and bidentate phosphines (entries 10–14), but these additives provided no beneficial impact on the yield.

At this point of the optimization studies, we focused on understanding the effect of the leaving group on the reaction efficiency (entries 15–19). By modulating the electronics of the thiol leaving group, we aimed to gain better understanding of whether the electron-donating (ester B), electron-withdrawing (esters C and D), or aliphatic esters E could improve the yield. However, we found that only 4-fluorothiophenol ester C gave a yield comparable to phenyl ester (50%); other esters were significantly less efficient. A chelating 2-thiopyridine byproduct that can compete with the phosphine additives showed a diminished yield (21%). Anhydrides, reported to act as suitable acyl donors in reactions with C(sp2) boronic acids,[53−57] were found ineffective (entry 19). Acyl chlorides reportedly act as excellent acyl donors in cross-couplings with acyclic stannanes and boronic acids; however, they were found to be incompatible with per-benzylated C1 stannanes. It is interesting to note that a reaction of stannane 15 with benzoyl chloride and TiCl4 (1.0 equiv, 0 °C, CH2Cl2, 1 h) resulted in the formation of benzoyl d-glucose 17 in 8% and high β selectivity. The mechanism of this transformation likely involves activation of the acyl donor with a Lewis acid followed by a stereoretentive delivery of the nucleophile to the putative acylium intermediate. Given that the use of highly reactive Lewis acid additives with acyl chlorides is limited in scope, other methods for the stereoretentive synthesis of C-acyl glycosides were pursued. Taken together, we decided to continue our investigations using thioesters because of the ease of preparation, stability, and compatibility with a wide range of functional groups.

Other alterations to the reaction conditions were investigated to improve the yield. A simple increase in the amount of CuCl and stannane 15 modestly improved the yield (entries 20 and 21). Addition of phosphite[40] (entries 22–25) but not triaminophosphine (entry 26) ligands (40 mol %) increased the yield. Furthermore, P(OMe)3 exhibited the best reaction outcomes thus far and afforded C-acyl d-glucose 17 in 83% isolated yield (entry 23). The unique role of the phosphite ligand can be attributed to its ability to suppress the decarbonylation pathway[40] and to prevent the formation of d-glucal. Finally, control experiments (entries 27 and 28) affirmed that both palladium precatalyst and copper(I) additives are necessary for the reaction to occur. From these results, we converged on the use of thioesters along with phosphite or bulky phosphine (JackiePhos) ligands in 1,4-dioxane using a Pd-catalyst in the presence of excess CuCl to investigate the reaction’s generality.

Reaction Scope

The scope of the anomeric acylation reaction was probed using various thioesters derived from C(sp2) and C(sp3) carboxylic acids, and d-glucose stannane 15 (Scheme ). Under the optimized conditions, a wide range of C(sp2)- and several examples of C(sp3)-thioesters were readily converted to their corresponding glycosides in moderate to excellent yields (Scheme A,B). Aromatic thioesters containing electron-donating- (19d–i) and electron-withdrawing (19c) groups on the aromatic ring as well as bicyclic (19a, b) systems are included in this group. Thioesters derived from furan and indole carboxylic acids also performed moderately well with our protocol (19j and 19k). Substrates with heteroaromatic moieties present a greater challenge for selective functionalization due to the system’s additional reactive sites which can coordinate with palladium and hinder catalytic efficiency. To our delight, we found that vinyl thioesters are also viable substrates as demonstrated by the smooth conversion of cinnamyl thioester into 19l in 50% yield. When the we tested the reaction’s compatibility with thioesters of simple, C(sp3)-carboxylic acids, we noticed that the yields for these transformations were about 15% higher than the reactions with simple aryl substrates (Scheme B). These results are especially interesting considering the likelihood of a decarbonylation of the thioester that can lead to a stabilized (e.g., benzylic) organopalladium intermediate (in a reaction leading to 19m).

Scheme 3

Glycosyl Acylation with Thioesters Derived from sp2 (A), sp3 (B), and Selected Bioactive (C) Carboxylic Acids

Reagents and conditions: thioester 18 (0.1 mmol), anomeric stannane 15 (3.0 equiv), Pd2(dba)3 (7.5 mol %), P(OMe)3(40 mol %), CuCl (4 equiv), and anh. 1,4-dioxane (2 mL) under N2, 110 °C, 96 h.

Pd(PPh3)4 (15.0 mol %).

JackiePhos(30 mol %).

Selenoester was used.

To further investigate the versatility of the glycosyl cross-coupling method, we next applied the optimized acylation conditions to the glycodiversification of a series of commercially available pharmaceuticals and other biologically active molecules with d-glucose (Scheme C). Late-stage functionalization is advantageous for the preparation of new therapeutics, as acylated versions of pharmaceutical candidates can be rapidly accessed. Glycosyl ketones derived from indomethacin (19q), adapalone (19r), probenecid (19s), naproxen (19t), steroids (19u and 19v), and atorvastatin (19w) were prepared by simple conversion of the acids into the thioesters followed by cross-coupling with stannane 15. High chemoselectivity was observed in a reaction with halogen-containing substrates (19q), and even thioesters that were derived from benzylic acids were converted into the products with no observed erosion of susceptible positions. For example, a reaction of a thioester that can lead to a stabilized benzylic intermediate after decarbonylation and a potential loss of optical purity was smoothly converted into the C1 ketone 19t in 50% yield. Substrates containing strong coordinating groups that compete with P(OMe)3 for coordination with the Pd catalyst can result in lower yields and a scrambling of stereochemistry. To overcome this obstacle, we found that conversion of probenecid thioester into 19s was achieved in 51% and high selectivity when a bulky ligand (JackiePhos, 30 mol %)[58] was used. Interestingly, in the acylation manifold, other biphenyl ligands such as BrettPhos[59] were ineffective and resulted in low yield of 19s mostly due to the formation of d-glucal as the major product. This novel glycodiversification method enables the incorporation of glycans into small molecules and commercial agents at the end of a synthetic sequence, making it a suitable protocol for accessing a diverse set of late-stage therapeutic and commercial analogues.[60]

Additional studies were focused on probing the scope of the glycosyl-cross coupling with various mono- and disaccharides (Scheme ). A wide range of carbohydrate stannanes is readily available from their corresponding glycals or from O-glycosylation methods to extend the oligosaccharide chain, i.e., dehydrative glycosylation, opening of 1,2-anhydro-sugars, or via activation of trichloroacetamidates.[21] We demonstrated the smooth conversions of 1,2-cis anomers of d-glucose 21a, d-galactose 21c, and d-glucosamine 21e into the corresponding ketones with retention of anomeric configuration in 53–85% isolated yields. Similar cross-coupling results were obtained for 1,2-trans isomers of monosaccharides resulting in the synthesis of 21b, 21d, 21h, 21i, and lactose 21j. 2-Deoxysugars, notorious for the difficulties they present to stereocontrolled anomeric derivatization,[18] underwent smooth conversion into C1-acyl analogues 21f and 21g in excellent yields. C1 stannanes protected with benzylidene, a common protecting group in the preparative carbohydrate chemistry, are also well tolerated under the acylation conditions as illustrated by the synthesis of 21h in 73% isolated yield.

Scheme 4

Saccharide Diversity in Cross-Coupling with Phenyl Thiobenzoate

Reaction conditions: thioester 16a (0.1 mmol), anomeric stannane 20 (3.0 equiv), Pd2(dba)3 (7.5 mol %), P(OMe)3(40 mol %), CuCl (4 equiv), and anh. 1,4-dioxane (2 mL) under N2, 110 °C, 96 h. aJackiePhos (30 mol %). bSelenoester was used.

On the basis of the initial catalyst identification studies, thiophenol esters were found to be the optimal coupling partners. However, the yields of reactions with certain thiophenyl esters were suboptimal (e.g., 19p was formed in 32%). In the case of transition metal-catalyzed C–S activation, a key step impacting the overall catalytic efficiency is activation of the bond formed between the transition metal-catalyst and the soft sulfur.[61,62] We surmised that low yields could be improved by using a more active acyl donor in the form of selenoesters. The C–Se bond is 24.9 kcal·mol–1 weaker than the C–S bond, which allows for the cleavage of the C–X (X = S or Se) bond to be accelerated.[63] Additional considerations in switching to selenoesters involve the enhanced nucleofugality of the selenide which places a greater significance on the transmetalation step to ensure smooth reaction progress. This property of Se was extensively used in the generation of acyl radicals[64] and in ortho-acylation of aryl halides.[65] Thus, a reaction of 15 with phenylselenoester of the corresponding acid resulted in an improved yield of 19p (77%).

Noteworthy observations regarding the reactivity of the esters are reactions with 1,2-cis isomers (1) require high reaction temperatures (130 °C) for completion and (2) are prone to glycal formation. To this end, the use of JackiePhos is recommended to minimize the competing elimination pathway. It is also important to consider the potential obstacles encountered when employing substrates containing groups (e.g., 2-acetamide) capable of competing with P(OMe)3 for coordination with Pd catalyst. This problem can be addressed by replacing P(OMe)3 with JackiePhos, which furnishes the target products in good to excellent yields and high selectivities (21d,e). In terms of the scope of acyl donors that are compatible with C(sp3) nucleophiles, selenoesters are preferred for reactions involving 1,2-cis anomers (21a and 21c) and 2-deoxysugars (21f and 21g). Furthermore, analysis of the reaction mixtures revealed that the decarbonylation pathway plays only a minor role, and the potential C1-arylation products under the optimized conditions were formed in <5% yield.

The anomeric selectivity of the glycosyl cross-coupling reactions was determined by the analysis of 1H NMR of unpurified reaction mixtures. For all substrates presented in Scheme , formation of a single anomer was observed. The configurations of the anomeric carbon in compounds 19 and 21 were assigned based on the analysis of 3J(HH) coupling constants of the H1 proton signals. The diagnostic signals are typically located in the 3.81–5.25 ppm region (300 MHz, CDCl3) and have J values that fall in the 8.80–9.40 Hz and 4.20–6.20 Hz range for 1,2-trans and 1,2-cis isomers, respectively.

Applications in the Synthesis of C-Disaccharides

To further demonstrate the generality of the stereospecific anomeric acylation reaction, we embarked on the synthesis of C-disaccharides (Scheme ). Kishi demonstrated previously that CH2-linked disaccharides (lactose) are viable surrogates of the natural oligosaccharides.[66−78] The predictable nature of our glycosyl cross-coupling method enables a programmed approach toward the stereospecific preparation of C-glycosides conferred by direct control of product configuration by the corresponding configuration of the substrate used. To this end, we demonstrated that phenylselenoester of homoglucuronic acid 22 can be merged with both anomers of d-glucose and N-acetyl-d-glucosamine stannanes in high yields (50–88%) and with exclusive transfer of anomeric configuration. The cross-coupling reaction using the phenylthioester derivative was also tested, but the corresponding yields were significantly lower (23% for 23a).

Scheme 5

Synthesis of C-Acyl Diglycosides

Access to both anomers of C(sp3)-glycosides offers the unprecedented opportunity to synthesize complex oligosaccharide scaffolds in a programmed and predictable fashion by simple selection of the corresponding nucleophiles with a defined anomeric configuration. The conformational studies provide the foundation for further explorations in this arena as the access to any desired configuration is feasible under a standardized protocol.

Product Elaboration

Acyl C-glycosides can be converted into C(sp2)- and C(sp3)-glycosides via a series of reactions depicted in Scheme . The carbonyl group in 17 was converted into alcohol 24 via reduction with NaBH4 or by addition of MeMgBr forming tertiary alcohol 25 with dr > 95:5.[11] The stereochemical outcome of this reaction can be rationalized using the Cram chelate model in which the endocyclic pyranosyl oxygen and the carbonyl group form a stable chelate with magnesium followed by addition of the nucleophile from the H1 face. The carbonyl moiety was also reduced into alkene 26 under catalytic hydrogenation with Pd/C and acetic acid (10 mol %) in 98%. These conditions removed all benzyl groups in a single step. The carbonyl group could be converted into an olefin, and this reaction sequence presents an indirect method for C(sp3)-C(sp2) cross coupling with a vinyl equivalent, which is otherwise inaccessible through standard palladium-catalyzed cross-coupling condtions.[21] The Wittig (Ph3PCH2) or the Horner–Wadsworth–Emmons ((EtO)2P(O)CH2) protocols were ineffective in this case because of the competing elimination the C2 benzyloxy group. However, the Peterson olefination conditions (TMSCH2MgBr followed by KHMDS)[79] were suitable for the installation of the vinyl group in 27 in 84%.

Scheme 6

Product Elaboration

Reagents and conditions: (a) NaBH4, MeOH, 97%; (b) MeMgBr, THF, 0 to 23 °C, 4 h, 93%; (c) H2, Ph/C, AcOH (10 mol %), MeOH, 98%; (d) TMSCH2MgBr, THF, 0 to 23 °C, 12 h then KHMDS, THF, 0 to 23 °C, 12 h, 84%.

Synthesis of Fluorinated Glycomimetics

Unlike other classes of biopolymers such as nucleic acids[80−82] and peptides,[83] the replacement of selected functional groups in carbohydrates has largely been limited to hydroxyl groups around the saccharide core.[84−89] Substitutions with fluorine are well-known—a premiere example being the isotopically labeled 18F d-glucose 28 which is used as a tracer for PET imaging.[90] Replacement of the endocylic oxygen atom with a CF2 group has been reported (e.g., 29), and the fluorinated analogues showed improved stability as well as restored anomeric effects which enabled the adoption of natural O-glycoside conformations in solution.[17,91−93]Gem-difluoro glycosides, in which the exocyclic oxygen is replaced with a CF2 surrogate, also constitute a promising class of glycomimetics because (a) the two fluorine atoms of the CF2 group more accurately represent the electrostatic potential and H-bonding of the ethereal oxygen atom (30 vs 31)[82,94] compared to CH2 derivatives, and (b) CF2-linked glycosides show conformational preferences similar to their natural cognates (Scheme ). Additionally, fluorinated glycosides display unique physicochemical properties including increased lipophilic character[95] and stability.[12,15,17] The difluorinated surrogate of ganglioside GM4 (4) demonstrated inhibitory activity of lymphocyte proliferation similar to the natural GM4.[12,15] Jiménez-Barbero[92] and Vogel[96] performed a series of NMR and computational studies on a CF2-linked d-galactoside and concluded that the conformational preferences of these unnatural saccharides mimic the natural counterparts, but subtle conformational differences have to be incorporated into the analysis to fully recapitulate the solution structures.[96] These are reminiscent of earlier work by Kishi who systematically investigated the conformational behavior of CH2-linked glycosides and demonstrated in a series of papers that CH2-linked disaccharides display conformational preferences comparable with natural O-glycosides.[66−78] Having access to both anomers of acyl glycosides, we next wondered if these compounds could serve as substrates for the preparation of fluorinated glycomimetics.

Scheme 7

Selected Fluorine Modifications of Saccharides

Prior to synthetic studies, we performed computational analyses of axial and equatorial isomers of tetrahydropyran derivatives summarized in Figure .[97,98] First, we evaluated conformational preferences of O-glycosides calculated at the density functional theory (DFT) level of theory could be translated into the preference of CF2 analogues for the axial and equatorial anomers (Figure A). In the model systems, the axial anomer of O-glycoside displays a single major conformer in which the substituent prefers the gauche conformation with the most stable conformer (dihedral angle, ψ = 60°). Similar preferences are also observed for CH2 and CF2 analogues with a global minimum located around ψ = 50° and ψ = 55°, respectively. However, the CH2 analogue is more flexible than the fluorinated glycomimetics because the next lowest energy conformer is only 0.7 kcal·mol–1 above the minimum ((ψ = 161°) with the interconversion barrier of 2.0 kcal·mol–1, whereas for the CF2 glycomimetics the next lowest energy conformer is located 2.8 kcal·mol–1 higher (ψ = 164°) with the rotational barrier of 2.5 kcal·mol–1. For the equatorial isomers, all three analogues show similar minima around ψ ≈ 280–300°, but both CH2 and CF2 analogues have two other well-defined minima. For the equatorial CF2-linked pyranose, the barriers of interconversion are much higher than for the CH2-linked glycoside rendering these analogues less flexible.

Figure 1

(A) Conformational analysis of axial and equatorial isomers of tetrahydropryran. (B) Energies (E2, kcal·mol–1) of second-order orbital interactions (nO(endo) → σ*C1-X) calculated at M06-2X/6-311++G** level of theory.

Second, in silico studies were focused on the impact of the tetrahydropyran modification on the anomeric effect.[99,100] Natural bond orbital (NBO) analysis allows for the evaluation of the energetic importance of orbital interactions by considering possible interactions between filled donors and empty acceptors using second-order perturbation theory.[101]Figure b lists selected anomeric stabilization energies calculated for axial and equatorial conformers of substituted tetrahydropyran. For the thermodynamically most stable conformer, the acetal stabilization is a dominant contributor for the conformational preferences. The C(sp3) analogues show reduced “endo-anomeric” stabilizations as compared to O-glycoside, but they retain 64% of the oxygen anomeric stabilization for the CF2 analogue and only 50% of the stabilization for the ethyl pyranose. In addition to the extra 1.85 kcal·mol–1 of stabilization responsible for the increased conformational preferences of the axial anomer, the C1–CF2 bond is also polarized, making the donor–acceptor interactions more favorable. The energetic gains resulting from nO(endo)→σ*C1–X interactions are similar to the values calculated for gem-difluorocarbadisaccharides stabilized by the exo-anomeric effect.[17] As expected, the stabilizing interactions are low for both equatorial C(sp3) surrogates.

Subsequent studies were aimed at establishing a synthetic route to CF2-linked glycosides (Scheme ). A conversion of the ketone functionality into a CF2 group is well-documented for S(VI) reagents.[102−104] Thus, DeoxoFluor[105] was mixed with catalytic (10 mol %) amounts of MeOH to convert ketones into the gem-difluorides 32. Our initial concerns that the glycosidic bond might be unstable under these conditions were unwarranted—CF2-linked disaccharide 32e was prepared with DeoxoFluor in 51% without cleavage of the methyl glycoside. The benzyl groups in CF2-linked glycosides 32 could be removed without concomitant defluorination demonstrated for 32f (98%). This synthesis presents an interesting example of a glycosidic bond mutated into a fluorinated isostere in a disaccharide system.[98,106]

Scheme 8

Gem-Difluorination of C-Acyl Diglycosides

Access to fluorinated glycosides with any desired anomeric configuration opens the opportunities to apply these surrogates as structural and functional probes.[107−109] Similar to fluorinated peptides used to study protein–protein interactions, CF2-linked glycans can serve as probes to scrutinize glycan-lectin interactions by 19F NMR.[110−112]

Conclusions

In summary, we have described a general and practical palladium-catalyzed stereospecific acylation reaction of anomeric nucleophiles with thio- and selenoesters. This newly developed method capitalizes on a stereoretentive transfer of anomeric configuration from configurationally stable C1 glycosyl stannanes without C2-directing groups to provide easy access to a wide range of C(sp3)- or C(sp2)-acyl glycosides under mild conditions. Given that these glycosides are easy to prepare and derivatize, this can serve as synthetic building blocks and amenable to this method provides an entry into C(sp3) glycomimetics that are notorious for their challenging preparation. We have been also able to prepare via a series of straightforward manipulations a series of CF2-linked saccharides mimicking the natural saccharides. Taken together, the use of anomeric nucleophiles in the preparation of natural and designer saccharides presents an example of unprecedented scope and selectivity for the manipulation of the anomeric carbon in complex saccharide settings. The application of the glycosyl cross-coupling method in target-oriented synthesis and in glycodiversification is ongoing.