Heavy metal bioavailability and accumulation in winter wheat (Triticum aestivum L.) irrigated with treated wastewater in calcareous soils.

Irrigation with raw or diluted wastewater increases in many developing countries, but the increasing availability and use of wastewater generates challenges for public agencies charged with minimizing potential impacts on public health and the environment. In this study, the available (DTPA-extractable) concentration of Zn, Cu, Cd, Pb, and Ni in the surface soil was measured in five sites irrigated with treated wastewater as compared with a site irrigated with freshwater (control). The major sources of wastewater were municipal wastewater, household, commercial, and industrial effluents, which were treated to settle and remove solids prior its use for irrigation. In addition, the concentration of the above five heavy metals and their accumulation and mobilization characteristics were determined in the roots, shoots, and grains of winter wheat (Triticum aestivum L.) grown in treated wastewater-irrigated soils. Irrigation with treated wastewater resulted in a remarkable build-up of metal concentrations in the soil (averaged over five sites) in the order of Cd (178.2%) > Ni (105.1%) > Cu (66.4%) > Zn (66.0%) > Pb (40.9%) compared with control. However, only Cd concentration exceeded the permissible range. The concentration of heavy metals was significantly greater (P < 0.05) in wheat roots than in shoots and grains (root ≫ shoot > grain). The highest concentrations were found in the roots in the order of Cu > Zn > Pb > Cd > Ni. The maximum concentrations of Zn, Cu, Ni, Cd, and Pb in wheat grains were 3.20, 1.20, 0.52, 0.31, and 0.21 mg kg-1, respectively. The bioconcentration and translocation factors of wheat showed that heavy metals quantitatively accumulated in the roots and were poorly translocated to the grains. The potential health risks, calculated as hazard quotients (HQ), were less than unity for most heavy metals, indicating that local people are within the safe limit regarding non-carcinogenic risks. However, the HQ value of Cd exceeded 1 for both children and adults, indicating a high health hazard for the whole exposed population by this metal.