Heart Failure in End-Stage Kidney Disease: Pathophysiology, Diagnosis, and Therapeutic Strategies.

Heart failure (HF) is a major comorbidity in patients with end-stage kidney disease (ESKD). The pathogenesis of HF in patients on renal replacement therapy represents the confluence of several traditional and nontraditional vascular risk factors, unique to the milieu of chronic kidney disease and the dialysis modality. The diagnosis of HF with ESKD is complicated by the background of frequent inevitable fluid shifts superimposed on underlying myocardial pump abnormalities and dialysis-induced myocardial stunning. A careful temporal assessment of symptoms and physical findings, cardiac imaging, hemodynamic data, and biomarkers help establish an accurate diagnosis of HF in ESKD. Accurate volume assessment and its tight management remains the cornerstone of treatment in HF in patients on dialysis. A multidisciplinary approach between the cardiologist and nephrologist in optimizing pharmacologic strategies for HF in this population, and dialysis-based options such as frequent dialysis, may help reduce the burden of HF in this vulnerable population. Finally, including patients with ESKD in clinical trials for HF therapies, and designing pragmatic trials that bring targeted strategies for HF into the daily clinical practice of dialysis, will shed light on the optimal management of the dual burden of cardiomyopathy and advanced kidney disease.