Transfer of Knowledge in Urology: A Case Study of Jacob Eduard Polak (1818-1891) and the Introduction of Contemporary Techniques of Lithotomy and Lithotripsy from Vienna to Persia in the Mid-19th Century: A New Analysis of Scientific Papers from the 19th Century.

The middle of the 19th century marks the beginning of a global process of science and knowledge transfer from -Europe to the rest of the world. During the phase of globali-zation, Austrian physician and ethnographer Jacob E. Polak (1818-1891) played a key role in the transmission of practical and scientific reasoning, leading to the development of medical science and clinical care in Persia. In 1851, Polak was commissioned by the Persian court to work as an academic teacher at the first secular institution of higher learning in Teheran, the Dār al-Fonūn. After 4 years of teaching and working as a doctor and surgeon, Polak was appointed personal physician to the Qājār king, Nāṣer-ad-Dīn Shāh (r. 1848-1896). During Polak's 9 year stay in Persia, he performed numerous surgical operations with specific focus on lithotomies on men and women of all ages. He documented each operation and collected samples of bladder calculi for the purpose of chemical analysis. After his return to Austria, he published a detailed report on his practice of lithotomy in Persia. This extensive documentation is, we believe, the only known historical evidence that currently exists of the introduction of modern urology to Persia. This study will present Polak's role as a pioneer of modern medicine and lithotomy, and will examine how he introduced the latest achievements of Viennese medicine in the field of operative urology to Persia.