Graphene-based drug delivery systems in tissue engineering and nanomedicine.

The time and dosage form of graphene derivatives have been found to determine therapeutic and toxic windows in several cell lines and preclinical models. The enhanced biological action of graphene derivatives is made possible by altering the chemistry of native materials via surface conjugation, or by changing the oxidation state. The high level of chemical reactivity vested in the planar structure of graphene can be used to load various drugs and biomolecules with maximum radical scavenging effect. The integration of graphene and polymers brings electrical conductivity to scaffolds, making them ideal for cardiac or neuronal tissue engineering. Drawbacks associated with graphene-based materials for biomedical applications include defect-free graphene formation and heteroatom contamination during synthesis process; reduced availability of sp2 hybridized carbon centers due to serum proteins masking; and poor availability of data pertaining to in vivo clearance of graphene-based formulations. Personalized medicine is an emerging area of alternative treatments, which in combination with graphene-based nanobiomaterials, has revolutionary potential for the development of individualized nanocarriers to treat highly challenging diseases.