Parkin and PINK1 mitigate STING-induced inflammation.

Although serum from patients with Parkinson's disease contains elevated levels of numerous pro-inflammatory cytokines including IL-6, TNF, IL-1β, and IFNγ, whether inflammation contributes to or is a consequence of neuronal loss remains unknown1. Mutations in parkin, an E3 ubiquitin ligase, and PINK1, a ubiquitin kinase, cause early onset Parkinson's disease2,3. Both PINK1 and parkin function within the same biochemical pathway and remove damaged mitochondria from cells in culture and in animal models via mitophagy, a selective form of autophagy4. The in vivo role of mitophagy, however, is unclear, partly because mice that lack either PINK1 or parkin have no substantial Parkinson's-disease-relevant phenotypes5-7. Mitochondrial stress can lead to the release of damage-associated molecular patterns (DAMPs) that can activate innate immunity8-12, suggesting that mitophagy may mitigate inflammation. Here we report a strong inflammatory phenotype in both Prkn-/- and Pink1-/- mice following exhaustive exercise and in Prkn-/-;mutator mice, which accumulate mutations in mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA)13,14. Inflammation resulting from either exhaustive exercise or mtDNA mutation is completely rescued by concurrent loss of STING, a central regulator of the type I interferon response to cytosolic DNA15,16. The loss of dopaminergic neurons from the substantia nigra pars compacta and the motor defect observed in aged Prkn-/-;mutator mice are also rescued by loss of STING, suggesting that inflammation facilitates this phenotype. Humans with mono- and biallelic PRKN mutations also display elevated cytokines. These results support a role for PINK1- and parkin-mediated mitophagy in restraining innate immunity.

If mitophagy can function to remove damaged mitochondria to reduce the release of DAMPs, then PINK1−/− and Parkin−/− mice may display elevated inflammatory cytokines. However, cytokines levels in serum of Parkin−/− and PINK1−/− mice were similar to wild-type (WT) mice (ED Figure 1a). To acutely stress mitochondria, 12-week-old mice were exercised until exhausted for three consecutive days. No differences in the time to exhaustion were observed among WT, Parkin−/−, and PINK1−/− mice (ED Figure 1b). Upon mitochondrial damage, PINK1 is stabilized on the outer mitochondrial membrane where it phosphorylates ubiquitin on Ser65 (pS65-Ub) to recruit and activate Parkin to induce mitophagy[4]. Therefore, to determine if exhaustive exercise (EE) activates PINK1 in vivo pS65-Ub levels were quantified in heart tissue. In WT heart, EE induced a two-fold increase in pS65-Ub relative to control sedentary (SED) mice (Figure 1a). In SED PINK1−/− mice, pS65-Ub levels were lower than in WT SED mice and did not increase with EE (Figure 1a). Parkin−/− mice also did not display increased pS65-Ub following EE (ED Figure 1c). Mitophagy was directly measured in vivo in heart tissue of WT and PINK1−/− mt-Keima mice[17]. Consistent with pS65-Ub levels, mitophagy increased two-fold following EE in WT heart tissue relative to SED and was significantly lower following EE in PINK1−/− mice relative to WT (Figure 1b–c). Thus, EE triggers PINK1 activation and mitophagy in vivo.

Extended Data Figure 1.

Inflammation in Parkin−/− and PINK1−/− mice.

a, d) Heat maps depicting average cytokine concentration in serum from mice (n=10), b) Average time to exhaustion on each trial day. Small graphs show individual run times (n=10), c) pS65-ubiquitin as fmol per mg total protein from Parkin−/− heart tissue (n= 3). e-k) Serum cytokine concentrations from EE mice are graphed as mean−/+SD (n=10). l) Heat map depicting serum cytokine levels of LRRK2 (n=4). Using T-tests, no differences in cytokine concentrations were found between Pre-Trial (Baseline) and Post-Trial (Immediate). ****, ***, **, * indicate P<0.001, 0.005, 0.01, 0.05 respectively. ns= not significant. SED means sedentary.

Figure 1.

Inflammation and mitophagy with Parkin and PINK1 deficiency.

a) pS65-ubiquitin as a percentage of total ubiquitin (right y-axis) and as fmol per mg total protein (left y-axis) from heart tissue (n=6). b) Representative images of heart tissue from SED or EE mice expressing mtKeima with quantification of the 561nm/488nm ratio (n=3). c) Representative images of heart tissue from wild type and PINK1−/− EE mice expressing mt-Keima with quantification of the 561nm/488nm ratio (n=3). d-e) Serum IL-6 and IFNβ1 concentrations for EE mice (n=10). Graphs are presented as mean−/+SD. ****, **, * indicate P<0.001, 0.01, 0.05. ns=not significant.

When mitophagy was increased in WT mice, immediately and 24 hours post-EE serum concentrations of IL-6, IFNβ1, IL-12(p70), IL-13, CXCL1, CCL2, and CCL4 did not change (Figure 1d–e, ED Figure 1e–i). However, these cytokines were all substantially increased in serum of mitophagy-deficient Parkin−/− and PINK1−/− mice (Figure 1d–e, ED Figure 1e–i). No differences in cytokines were found in SED mice nor in LRRK2G2019S/G2019S mutant mice following EE (ED Figure 1d, l). Even mice with haploinsufficiency in PINK1 displayed increased IL-6, IFNβ1, IL-12(p70), CXCL1, and CCL4 following EE, and Parkin+/− mice displayed increased IL-6 (ED Figure 2a–f). Therefore, serum from human Parkin and PINK1 heterozygotes was examined (Suppl. File 1). Consistent with previous reports, serum levels of IL-6, IL-1β, CCL2, and CCL4 were higher in idiopathic PD patients than in normal controls (Figure 2a, ED Figure 2g–i). Relative to control serum, levels of IL-6, IL-1β, CCL2, and CCL4 in unaffected Parkin heterozygotes were significantly higher, comparable to levels in idiopathic PD patients and patients with biallelic Parkin mutations, whereas levels of PINK1 heterozygotes were not (Figure 2a, ED Figure 2g–i). Thus, loss of Parkin leads to an increase in inflammatory cytokines also in man and prior to, or independent of, symptomatic neurodegeneration.

Extended Data Figure 2.

Inflammatory cytokines are increased in mice and humans with heterozygous loss of Parkin or PINK1.

a-f) Serum cytokine concentrations from Parkin−/+ (n=4) and PINK1−/+ (n=6) EE mice. g-i) Serum cytokine concentrations from human control (HC) (n=62), PINK1 heterozygotes (P1H) (n=6), unaffected Parkin heterozygotes (UPH) (n=7), affected Parkin biallelic mutants (APB) (n=7) and idiopathic PD patients (IPD) (n=9). Graphs are presented as mean−/+SD. ****, ***, **, * indicate P<0.001, 0.005, 0.01, 0.05 respectively. ns=not significant.

Figure 2.

Inflammation in Parkin−/− and PINK1−/− mice following EE is completely rescued by loss of STING.

a) Serum IL-6 concentration from human control (HC) (n=62), PINK1 heterozygotes (P1H) (n=6), unaffected Parkin heterozygotes (UPH) (n=7), affected Parkin biallelic mutants (APB) (n=7) and idiopathic PD patients (IPD) (n=9). b) Average surface body temperature each day of the trial. Red arrows indicate retro-orbital serum sampling. Small graphs show the average daily temperature relative to the average baseline temperature (grey dashed line) (n=6). c-d) Serum IL-6 and IFNβ1 concentrations for EE mice. (n=6, baseline and post-trial immediate or n=3, post-trial, 2 days and post-trial, 6 days). Graphs are presented as mean−/+SD. ****, *** indicate P<0.001, 0.005.

IL-6 is an endogenous pyrogen. As EE in Parkin−/− and PINK1−/− mice induced a ~1000-fold increase in serum IL-6, mouse body temperature was examined. One day post-trial, the surface body temperatures of Parkin−/− and PINK1−/− EE mice, but not WT EE mice were significantly elevated and remained elevated for 3 to 4 days before returning to baseline (Figure 2b), consistent with serum cytokine levels (Figure 2c–d, ED Figure 3d–i).

Extended Data Figure 3.

STING loss prevents increased cytokine levels in Parkin−/− and PINK1−/−mice following EE.

a) Average time to exhaustion on each trial day (n=6). b-c) Heat map depicting the average baseline serum cytokine concentration for EE mice (n=6) and the average serum cytokines from SED (sedentary) mice (n=6). d-i) Serum cytokine concentrations from mice are graphed as mean−/+SD. (n=6, baseline, post-trial immediate or n=3, post-trial 2 days or post-trial 6 days) ****, ***, **, * indicate P<0.001, 0.005, 0.01, 0.05, respectively. ns=not significant.

Mitochondrial dysfunction can trigger inflammation via the NLRP3 inflammasome and/or via the cGAS-STING pathway[8-12]. Although mitophagy can mitigate NLRP3-induced inflammation in vitro[18], IL-1β, a product of NLRP3 activation[19], was not increased in Parkin−/− or PINK1−/− EE mice (ED Figure 1j), whereas the type I interferon, IFNβ1, a product of STING activation[15,16], was (Figure 1e). Therefore, Parkin and PINK1−/− mice were crossed with STING goldenticket mice[20] (STING) and subjected to EE. Time to exhaustion and baseline cytokine levels in STING, Parkin;STING, and PINK1;STING mice were similar to those of WT (ED Figure 3a–c). In stark contrast to Parkin−/− and PINK1−/− mice following EE, Parkin;STING and PINK1;STING mice displayed no detectable increase in the cytokines assayed (Figure 2c–d, ED Figure 3d–i). Consistently, surface body temperature did not increase following EE in absence of STING (Figure 2b).

Since STING is activated when double-stranded DNA binds cGAS, which in turn generates cyclic GMP-AMP (cGAMP)[15], serum DNA was examined before and after EE. Both mtDNA copy number and the ratio of mitochondrial to nuclear DNA increased in serum of Parkin−/− and Parkin−/−;STING mice following EE, but not in WT or STING mice (Figure 3a–c). Additionally, 2’,3’-cGAMP measured by liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry was markedly and comparably increased in heart tissue following EE in PINK1−/− and Parkin−/− mice but not detectable in WT or SED mice (ED Figure 4a). Treatment with anti-IFNAR1 blocking antibody[21], but not IgG control, inhibited the increase in body temperature and all serum cytokines except IFNβ1 (Figure 3d–f, ED Figure 4c–g).

Figure 3.

Circulating mtDNA is elevated in Parkin−/− mice and anti-IFNAR1 treatment blocks inflammation.

a-b) Copy number/μl of cell-free mtDNA (ND1) or nuclear DNA (ACTB) in serum (n<3). c) Ratio of mtDNA to nuclear DNA (n<3). d) Average surface body temperature each day of the trial (n=6). Red arrows indicate retro-orbital sampling. e-f) Serum IL-6 and IFNβ1 concentrations for EE mice (n=6). Graphs are presented as mean−/+SD. ****, ***, **, * indicate P<0.001, 0.005, 0.01, and 0.05. ns= not significant.

Extended Data Figure 4.

cGAMP is increased in Parkin−/− and PINK1−/− EE heart tissue and inflammation is inhibited by anti-IFNAR1 treatment.

a) Representative plot of signal intensity for cGAMP measured in heart tissue. cGAMP was not detected in WT EE or in SED mice. Average signal intensity for n=3 samples is shown in the inset. b) Average time to exhaustion on each trial day (n=6). c-g) Serum cytokine concentrations from EE Parkin−/− mice treated with anti-IFNAR1 antibody or IgG control (n=6). Graphs are presented as mean−/+SD. ****, *** indicate P<0.001, 0.005, respectively. ns=not significant.

To determine if EE-induced inflammation leads to tissue damage, serum creatine kinase (CK)[22] was measured. CK was similar among all genotypes at baseline but increased following EE in Parkin−/− and PINK1−/− mice, but not in WT (ED Figure 5a). Interestingly, the serum CK increase was not rescued by STING loss nor by pretreatment with anti-IFNAR1 blocking antibodies (ED Figure 5a–b), suggesting that mitophagy beyond inflammation mitigation may be critical for preventing muscle damage. This reveals another conditional phenotype in Parkin−/− and PINK1−/− mice that is potentially related to the degeneration of flight muscles observed in Parkin mutant Drosophila[23]. Interestingly, Parkin mutant Drosophila transcriptionally upregulate innate immune genes[24].

Extended Data Figure 5.

Elevated CK following EE in Parkin−/− and PINK1−/− mice is not rescued by inflammation inhibition and not elevated by chronic mitochondrial dysfunction.

a-c) Serum creatine kinase (CK) levels (n<3). Graphs are presented as mean−/+SD. ****, ***, ** indicate P<0.001, 0.005, 0.01, respectively.

Inflammation was also examined in a chronic model of mitochondrial stress. Mice expressing a proofreading defective mtDNA polymerase (PolG), called Mutator, accumulate mtDNA mutations, but do not display neurodegeneration[13,14]. However, Mutator mice lacking Parkin exhibit DA neuron loss and a movement disorder that can be rescued by treatment with Levodopa[13]. Serum cytokines were similar among 12-, 20-, and 40-week-old WT, Mutator, and Parkin−/− mice (Figure 4a–b, ED Figure 6a–h). However, Parkin−/−; Mutator mice expressed significantly higher serum levels of IL-6, IFNβ1, TNFα, IL-1β, CCL2, IL-12(p70), IL-13, IL-17, CXCL1, and CCL4 at both 20 and 40 weeks of age, demonstrating significant overlap with cytokines elevated in the EE-induced model of acute mitochondrial stress and human PD-patients (Figure 4a–c, ED Figure 6a–h). Consistent with the EE model, loss of STING in Parkin−/−;Mutator mice fully suppressed the inflammatory phenotype (Figure 4a–b, ED Figure 6a–h). That STING is activated by cGAS binding to cytosolic dsDNA, including mtDNA, and that the STING-mediated inflammation results from mtDNA mutation accumulation in Mutator mice indicates that mtDNA is the key inflammatory signal in the absence of Parkin. Indeed, circulating mtDNA levels and ratios of mitochondrial to nuclear DNA were significantly higher in 40-week-old Parkin ;Mutator mice compared to WT, Mutator, or Parkin mice and loss of STING did not rescue the increase (ED Figure 7a–c). Differing from the EE model, CK levels were not increased in aged Parkin−/−;Mutator mice (ED Figure 5c).

Figure 4.

STING loss prevents inflammation, a motor defect and neurodegeneration in the Parkin−/−;Mutator mice.

a, b) Serum IL-6 and IFNβ1 concentrations from 12-, 20-, and 40-week-old mice (n=4, 6). c) Venn diagram depicting serum cytokines found here elevated in each paradigm and those reported in idiopathic human patients (grey)[1]. d) The average time required for mice to descend the pole (n=6). e) TH+-neurons counted by stereology in the substantia nigra (SNc) of 40-week-old mice (n=3, 4). f) Representative images of TH+-neurons (green) and total neurons (NeuN, red). Graphs are presented as mean−/+SD. ****, ***, **, indicate P<0.001, 0.005, 0.01. ns=not significant.

Extended Data Figure 6.

Inflammation in aged Parkin−/−;Mutator mice is rescued by STING loss.

a-h) Serum cytokines concentrations from 12-, 20-, and 40-week-old mice (n=4, 6). Graphs are presented as mean−/+SD. ****, ***, ** indicate P<0.001, 0.005, 0.01 respectively. ns=not significant

Extended Data Figure 7.

STING mediates inflammation under chronic mitochondrial stress.

a-b) Copy number/μl of cell-free mtDNA (ND1) or nuclear DNA (ACTB) in serum (n<3). c) Ratio of mtDNA to nuclear DNA. (n<3) d) The time required for 12-week-old mice to descend the pole (n=6). e) TH+-neurons counted by stereology in the substantia nigra (SNc) of 52-week-old mice (n=3). f) Representative images of TH+-neurons (green) and total neurons (NeuN,red). g) Serum levels of antinuclear antibodies (ANA) 6 weeks post-EE. dsDNA antibodies were not detected and ANAs were not detected at baseline or immediately post-EE (n=4, 6). h) Serum levels of anti-dsDNA antibodies (n=4, 6). ANA antibodies were not detected. Graphs are presented as mean−/+SD (n=6). ****, ***, * indicate P< 0.001, 0.005, 0.05 respectively. ns= not significant.

To determine if STING-mediated inflammation contributes to the motor defect previously reported in Parkin−/−; Mutator mice[13], locomotor activity was examined using a pole test that is sensitive to DA neuron loss in mouse models of Parkinson’s disease[25,26]. No differences in the latency to descend were revealed among genotypes at 12 and 20 weeks of age (Figure 4d, ED Figure 7d). However, 40-week-old Parkin−/−;Mutator mice had a significantly greater latency to descend (Figure 4d, Suppl. Video 1). Remarkably, 40-week-old Parkin−/−;Mutator;STING mice displayed latency times indistinguishable from those of WT and Parkin−/− mice (Figure 4d, Suppl. Videos 2, 3). Furthermore, while 40-week-old Parkin−/−;Mutator mice displayed a ~20% reduction in TH+ neurons, concurrent loss of STING in the Parkin−/−;Mutator;STING mice fully rescued TH+ neurons to wild type levels (Figure 4e–f). Even at 52 weeks of age, when Parkin−/−;Mutator mice lose ~40% of TH+ cells[13], Parkin−/−;Mutator;STING mice displayed wild type TH+ cell levels (ED Figure 7e–f). Together, these data demonstrate a complete rescue of the motor defect and neurodegeneration in Parkin−/−;Mutator mice by the absence of STING.

Parkin has been linked to adaptive immunity[27] and indeed, six weeks following EE, Parkin−/− mice had a significant increase in anti-nuclear antibodies (ANAs), whereas Parkin−/− mice treated with anti-IFNAR1 or lacking STING activity did not (ED Figure 7g). While anti-dsDNA antibodies were not detected in mice before or after EE, they (ED Figure 7h), but not ANAs, were significantly elevated in both 20- and 40-week-old Parkin−/−; Mutator mice. Interestingly, as in the chronic Parkin−/−;Mutator stress model, anti-dsDNA antibodies, but not ANAs, were found elevated in the serum of PD patients[28].

Here, we demonstrate that acute (EE-induced) and chronic (mtDNA mutation-induced) mitochondrial stress in vivo in the absence of Parkin or PINK1 leads to a STING-meditated type I Interferon response in mice. Additionally, we found elevated cytokines in serum of unaffected human heterozygous Parkin mutation carriers and intriguingly, intake of non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs is significantly inversely associated with a later diagnosis of PD[29]. Thus, Parkin and PINK1 are proposed to function to prevent inflammation and neurodegeneration by clearing damaged mitochondria to prevent increases in cytosolic and circulating mtDNA, suggesting a new model for how mitophagy may mitigate PD. Supporting our findings, a recent report demonstrated that DA neurons in the SNc have basal mitophagy rates higher than other DA-producing neurons[30].

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Mouse Strains

All mice were housed in pathogen-free facilities under 12-hr light dark cycles with access to food and water ad libitum. The STING Goldenticket (STING) mouse was obtained from Jackson Labs (C57BL/6J-Tmem173gt/J). It was generated by a chemically-induced mutation causing a T to A transversion which resulted in a point mutation at L199[19]. The point mutation triggers protein degradation and consequently, STING mice do not express STING or produce Type I Interferons in response to cyclic di-nucleotides[19]. Wild type (C57BL6/J), Parkin−/− (B6.129S4-Park2tm1Shn/J), PINK1−/− (B6.129S4-Pink1tm1Shn/J) and Mutator (B6.129S7 (Cg)-Polgtm1Tprol/J) mice were obtained from Jackson Laboratories. Parkin−/− and PINK1−/− mice were crossed with STING mice to generate Parkin−/−;STING or PINK1−/−;STING mice. Parkin−/−;Mutator were generated as described[13] and crossed with Parkin−/−;STINGgt/gt mice to generate Parkin−/−;Mutator;STINGgt/gt mice. Due to increased mtDNA mutational load and reduced fertility all Mutator matings were performed with heterozygous mice. LRRK2 mice were obtained from Novartis by Huaibin Cai, NHLBI, and generated as described in Herzing, M.C., et. al.[31]. mt-Keima mice on the FVB/NJ background were obtained from Dr. Nuo Sun, NHBLI and generated as described in Sun, N. et. al.[16]. PINK1−/− mice were crossed with mt-Keima mice to generate PINK1−/− mice expressing mt-Keima. Genotypes were confirmed by PCR [5,6,19,32]. All mice, except mt-Keima mice, have the nuclear background of C57BL/6J. All animal studies were carried out as approved by the Animal Care and Use Committee of the National Institute for Neurological Disorders and Stroke or the National Heart, Lung and Blood Institute.

Exhaustive Exercise

To induce mitochondrial stress, we subjected mice to forced exhaustive treadmill running on a Columbus Eco 3/6 (Columbus Instruments). 10-week-old mice were randomly assigned into sedentary (SED) and exhaustive exercise (EE) groups. All groups were counterbalanced by gender. At 11 weeks old, EE mice were familiarized with the treadmill using three days of low intensity running. On day 1 of the familiarization protocol, mice placed on the treadmill were given 5 minutes to acclimate before the treadmill belt was engaged. The belt speed was initially set to 8m/min then increased to 10m/min, then 12m/min for 5 minutes each, all at an incline of 10%. On day 2, mice were given 2 minutes to acclimate to the treadmill then exercised at 8m/min, 10m/min, 12m/min and 15m/min for 5 minutes each. On day 3, mice were placed on the treadmill and immediately exercised at 10m/min for 5 minutes, then increase to 12m/min, 15m/min and 18m/min for 5 minutes each. After familiarization, mice were allowed two days to recover prior to beginning the EE protocol. For three consecutive days, mice were subjected to the following protocol: At a 10% incline, the initial speed was set at 10m/min for 8 minutes, then increased to 15m/min for 5 minutes, and then increased by 1.8m/minute every three minutes until reaching a speed of 22.4m/minute. Mice were exercised for 10 minutes at 22.4m/min, then speed was then increased by 1m/min every 5 minutes until exhaustion. Exhaustion was determined when the mice failed to reengage all four paws with the treadmill belt despite negative stimulus. For each EE experiment, the number of mice were listed per experimental group in the figure legends and individual data points were graphed. The experimenter was blinded to the genotype of the mouse being exercised.

Blood collection and analysis

Blood was drawn from the retro-orbital sinus of SED and EE mice anesthetized with isoflourane using heparinized capillary tubes. Baseline blood draws were performed on 10-week-old mice prior to exercise. Post-Trial immediate blood draws were collected within 10 minutes of completion on the third day of the EE protocol. Final blood draws were performed at 24 hours, 2 days, 6 days or 6 weeks after completion of the EE protocol. The same mouse was sampled for each time point (Baseline, Post-Trial Immediate and Post-Trial Final). Serum was analyzed in a blinded manner for cytokines using Bio-plex Pro Mouse Cytokine Standard 23-Plex, Group 1 (Bio-Rad) and Legend Max Mouse IFN−β ELISA kit (BioLegend) and Mouse Anti-Nuclear Antigens (ANA/ENA) Ig’s (total (A+G+M)) ELISA Kit (Alpha Diagnostics). Creatine kinase (CK) was measured using a modified International Federation of Clinical Chemistry (IFCC) method[33]. Briefly, CK reversibly catalyzes the transfer of a phosphate group from creatine phosphate to ADP, resulting in creatine and ATP. ATP is used to produce glucose-6-phosphate and ADP from glucose. The glucose-6-phosphate is oxidized with simultaneous reduction of the coenzyme NADP to give NADPH and 6-phosphogluconate. Therefore, the activity of CK is measured as U/ml directly proportional to the formation of NADPH. Reactions were carried as previously described, and absorbance at 340/660 nm was read on an Olympus AU400e clinical analyzer (Beckman Coulter Inc., Irving, TX). Circulating cell free mtDNA and nuclear DNA was isolated from serum using the Maxwell RSC ccfDNA Plasma Kit (Promega) using the Maxwell RSC Instrument (Promega), then quantified using digital droplet PCR on a Maxwell as described in Ye, W. et. al.[34]. The assay used to detect Nd1 was dMmuCNS343824284 (Bio-rad), and the assay used to detect ActinB was dMmuCNS292036842 (Bio-rad).

Pole Test

The pole test was performed as previously described[13,25] to test the motor coordination of mice beginning at 12 weeks old, and then repeated at 20 and 40 weeks old. Mice were placed facing upward at the top of a vertical pole and given 180 seconds to change orientation and descend the pole. Failure to descend or falling from the pole was assigned 180 seconds. Each mouse performed the trial three times and the average latency to descend was determined. One day following the pole test, the same mouse also had blood drawn for cytokine analysis via the retro-orbital sinus, resulting in three pole tests and 3 blood draws per mouse; one at 12-, 20- and 40- weeks old.

Quantification of TH+ neurons by stereology

According to the mouse brain in stereotaxic coordinates, a series of coronal sections across the midbrain (40 μm per section, every third section from bregma −2.54 mm to −4.16 mm) were chosen and processed for tyrosine hydroxylase (TH) (ImmunoStar, Cat# 22941) and NeuN (Abcam, Cat# ab104225) staining, and visualized using a laser scanning confocal microscope (LSM 880; Zeiss). We examined 11–13 sections per brain. The images were captured as a projected layer at 20 μm (pinhole, 10 μm; interval, 5 μm, 3–4 layers) under X10 magnification. The number of TH-positive neurons was assessed using Fractionator function of Stereo Investigator 11 (MicroBrightField Inc.). The sampling scheme was designed to have coefficient of error (CE) of less than or equal to 5% in order to get reliable results. To achieve suitable CE, normally 12 serial sections, with a total of 140 counting frames. The final parameters of these studies were as follows: grid size, 250 × 250 μm; frame size, 200 × 200 μm. Three or four mice were used per genotype. Counters were blinded to the genotypes of the samples.

Body temperature sampling

Surface body temperature measurements were performed on SED and EE mice using the Exergen Temporal Scanner (TAT-5000, Exergen Corporation) beginning the day after the 10-week baseline blood draw and continuing daily until euthanasia either 2 days or 6 days after the exhaustive running protocol was complete. On days when mice were run or bled, temperatures were collected prior to exercise or blood draws. Mice were restrained by hand and the scanner was drawn across the abdomen from the left shoulder to the right hip. The average of three consecutive scans was recorded and averaged. For each mouse, baseline surface temperature was determined by collecting temperature for 11 days beginning the day after the baseline blood draw until beginning of the exercise trial. The average baseline temperatures depicted in the small graph insets in Figure 2b were determined by averaging all baseline surface temperatures for each individual mouse (11 days). Surface body temperature sampling was routinely performed between 2 and 3pm.

Anti-IFNAR1/2 blocking antibody treatment

Parkin−/− mice were randomly assigned to control and treatment groups. Treatment began following the familiarization protocol one day prior to starting EE via intraperitoneal injection with 2.5mg purified functional grade anti-mouse Interferon Alpha/Beta Receptor 1 (anti-IFNAR1) (MAR1–5E3, catalog number I-403, Leinco Technologies, St. Louis, MO) or 2.5mg purified functional grade anti-human Interferon gamma Receptor alpha as an IgG control[20] (GIR 208, catalog number I-443, Leinco Technologies, St. Louis, MO). This dose of anti-IFNAR1 has a half-life of 5 days[20]. Mice received only one treatment. The experimenter was blinded to the drug treatment. 3 mice were treated with IgG control or anti-IFNAR1 in two separate trials for a total of n=6 animals.

Quantification of pS65 ubiquitin and cGAMP in heart tissue

Ubiquitin and pS65 ubiquitin measurements were conducted following a previously described method[13] with several modifications. Briefly, EE and SED mice were perfused with phosphate-buffered saline, hearts were dissected and snap frozen in liquid nitrogen. For protein extraction, heart tissue was homogenized in an ice-cold lysis buffer (50 mM Tris/HCl [pH 7.5], 150 mM NaCl, 0.1% SDS, 1% Triton, 1 mM DTT, 50 μM PR-169, 5 mM ο-phenanthroline, protease inhibitor cocktail [Roche], and phosphatase inhibitor cocktail [Roche]). For ubiquitin enrichment, 4 mg of total protein from each sample was incubated overnight with Tandem Ubiquitin Binding Entities (TUBE, LifeSensors), washed four times with lysis buffer and another four times with 50 mM ammonium bicarbonate, eluted with 6 M guanidine HCl, precipitated with TCA, spiked with 200 fmol of UB-AQUA reference peptides (JPT Peptide Technologies), digested with Trypsin/Lys-C mix (Promega), and purified by HLB solid phase extraction column (Oasis). Purified peptides were dried down and redissolved in 0.1% formic acid in 2% acetonitrile. Targeted peptide analysis was performed on an UltiMate 3000 nanoLC system coupled with a Q Exactive HF mass spectrometer (Thermo). A 60 min LC gradient was established on an EASY-Spray C18 column (Thermo, 2 μm, 100 Å, 75 μm × 250 mm) with a flow rate of 0.3 μL/min. Buffer A was 0.1% formic acid in 2% acetonitrile, and buffer B was 0.1% formic acid and 5% DMSO in 95% acetonitrile. Targeted MS/MS scans were acquired with an isolation window of 1.4 m/z, higher-energy collisional dissociation (HCD) with a normalized collision energy of 25%, a resolution of 15 K, an automatic gain control of 5 × 105, and a maximum injection time of 50 ms. Raw data were uploaded onto Skyline 3.7[35] for data analysis and the results were exported to an Excel spread sheet for subsequent statistical analysis[13,36]. To quantify cGAMP, cGAMP was extracted and enriched from mouse heart samples following the steps described in Gao, et al[37]. Targeted LC-MS experiment was conducted on a Dionex Ultimate 3000 nano liquid chromatography system coupled with a Fusion Lumos Mass Spectrometer. cGAMP was separated with a 40 min gradient on an EASY-Spray C18 column (Thermo, 2 μm, 100 Å, 75 μm × 250 mm) with a flow rate of 0.3 μL/min. Buffer A was 0.1% formic acid in 2% acetonitrile, and buffer B was 0.1% formic acid and 5% DMSO in 95% acetonitrile.Target m/z was 675.1080 with an isolation window of 2 Da, a resolution of 7.5K, an automatic gain control of 2E5, and a maximum injection time of 32 ms. Raw data were acquired and analyzed in Xcalibur software.

Assessing cardiac mitophagy using the mt-Keima transgenic mice

Cardiac mitophagy was measured using confocal microscopy as previously described[17]. Briefly, for the hearts, tissues were rapidly dissected out, rinsed with cold PBS, and then further processed into small pieces (approximately 100 mm3). These sections were placed onto a 35-mm coverglass #1.5 bottom micro-well dish (MatTek) and analyzed immediately. Fluorescence of mt-Keima was imaged in two channels via two sequential excitations (458 nm, green; 561 nm, red) and using a 570- to 695-nm emission range with a Zeiss LSM 780 confocal microscope (Carl Zeiss MicroImaging) equipped with a Plan-Apochromat 20×/0.8 NA, 40×/1.4 NA, and 63×/1.40 NA oil immersion objective lens. Laser power was set at the lowest output that would allow clear visualization of the mt-Keima signal. Imaging settings were maintained with the same parameters for comparison between different experimental conditions. Representative confocal images were processed using Imaris software by contrast linear stretch only. The average of four images from each tissue sample was taken, and calculation of mitophagy based on mt-Keima signal was performed employing the original images using Zeiss ZEN software on a pixel-by-pixel basis as previously described[38].

Recruitment and characterization of probands and serum sampling

All probands were recruited at the Institute of Neurogenetics and Department of Neurology of the University of Luebeck, a tertiary referral center for movement disorders, or the National Institutes of Health (NIH) Clinical Center. Samples from the University of Lubeck were collected within the EPIPARK cohort[39], now part of the larger ProtectMove cohort which is enriched for idiopathic PD patients recruited at the center’s outpatient clinics and containing a nested monogenic PD/asymptomatic mutation carrier cohort. The local IRB granted approval of the PD cohort and genetic studies. Samples from the NIH Clinical Center were collected under a protocol approved by the NIH Combined Neuroscience (CNS) Institutional Review Board. All patients and controls gave written informed consent and were neurologically examined by a movement disorder specialist. If applicable, a clinical diagnosis of PD was established according to the UK Brain Bank Criteria. Clinical characterization and ancillary tests included the UPDRS, Hoehn and Yahr, and MoCA score, as well as olfactory testing using the Brief Smell Identification Test. A blood sample was obtained for extraction of DNA and preparation of serum. Genetic testing was performed with the Global Screening Array containing custom content for known PD genes and risk factors (Illumina), Sanger sequencing of PD-related genes, and multiplex ligation-dependent probe amplification (MLPA) to detect gene dosage changes. Serum was analyzed in a blinded manner for cytokines using Bio-Plex Pro Human Cytokine 17-plex Assay (Biorad).

Statistical Analysis

Statistical analysis for multiple comparisons were performed in Prizm 7 software using a Two-Way ANOVA on non-matched samples. All comparisons were to the same genotype, either prior to EE (pre-trial baseline) or to 12-week old animals in Figure 4, unless otherwise noted with brackets. Human cytokines comparisons (Figure 2a) were relative to controls unless noted by brackets. Body temperature comparisons were to the average temperature of WT animals measured on the same day.

Data Availability

LC-MS data that support the findings of this study have been deposited in Chorus https://chorusproject.org/ with the project ID 1508. All other relevant data are available in the manuscript.