Leaching of Metals and Metalloids from Hydrothermal Ore Particulates and Their Effects on Marine Phytoplankton.

Seafloor massive sulfide deposits have attracted much interest as mineral resources. Therefore, the potential environmental impacts of full-scale mining should be considered. In this study, we focused on metal and metalloid contamination that could be triggered by accidental leakage and dispersion of hydrothermal ore particulates from mining vessels into surface seawater. We determined the leaching potential of metals and metalloids from four hydrothermal ores collected from the Okinawa Trough into aerobic seawater and then evaluated the toxic effects of ore leachates on a phytoplankton species, Skeletonema marinoi-dohrnii complex, which is present ubiquitously in the ocean. Large amounts of metals and metalloids were released from the ground hydrothermal ores into seawater within 5 min under aerobic conditions. The main components of leachates were Zn + Pb, As + Sb, and Zn + Cu, which were obtained from the Fe-Zn-Pb-rich and Zn-Pb-rich zero-age, Ba-rich, and Fe-rich ores, respectively. The leachates had different chemical compositions from those of the ore. The rapid release and difference in chemical compositions between the leachates and the ores indicated that substances were not directly dissolved from the sulfide-binding mineral phase but from labile phases mainly on the adsorption-desorption interface of the ores under these conditions. All ore leachates inhibited the growth of S. marinoi-dohrnii complex but with different magnitudes of toxic effects. These results indicate that the fine particulate matter of hydrothermal ores is a potential source of toxic contamination that may damage primary production in the ocean. Therefore, we insist on the necessity for the prior evaluation of toxic element leachability from mineral ores into seawater to minimize mining impacts on the surface environment.

Introduction

Seafloor massive sulfide (SMS) deposits have attracted interest because of their potential as available mineral resources. However, seafloor metal-mining could create new problems in the marine environment and could have serious consequences for marine ecosystems.[1,2] One of these problems is the potential for metal and metalloid contamination, as metals are easily introduced into ecosystems where they gradually accumulate in the bodies of living organisms.[3,4]

It has been postulated that plumes of fine particulate minerals that arise during mining operations could be a major source of metal and metalloid contamination.[2,5] Such plumes are generated in the benthic zone as a result of drilling ore minerals and stripping unconsolidated sediment from the seafloor surface and in the epipelagic zone as a result of leakage of crushed ore from mining vessels. Plumes of fine particulate minerals in the epipelagic zone could damage marine phytoplankton communities at the base of the marine food chain.[5−8] Therefore, the mobility of these metals and metalloids in hydrothermal ores should be evaluated to predict the quantitative impacts of seafloor metal-mining on marine ecosystems.

Various types of ore deposits are present in submarine hydrothermal fields.[9−11] For example, Halbach et al. (1993) found that the hydrothermal ore in the hydrothermal field of Izena Hole, Okinawa Trough, had various chemical compositions and mineral assemblages, including Zn–Pb-rich sulfide ore, Ba–Zn–Pb sulfide ore, massive Zn–Cu-rich sulfide slabs, Fe-rich replacement ore, and Zn–Pb-rich impregnation ore.[9] These chemical compositions and mineral assemblages depend on the geological setting and fluid chemistry. The chemical compositions of leachates are expected to differ among different types of hydrothermal ores.

Simpson et al. (2007) studied the leachability of metals and metalloids from hydrothermal mineral ores collected from both active and inactive vent chimneys in the East Manus Basin hydrothermal field (Papua New Guinea) as part of the Solwara 1 project.[8] They observed that large amounts of Mn, Cu, Zn, and As and small amounts of Ni, Ag, Cd, and Pb were rapidly released into oxic seawater from these mineral ore samples. However, they did not take into account the relationship between the chemical composition of the leachates and those of the hydrothermal ores.

In this study, we investigated the leachability of metals and metalloids from fine particulates of various hydrothermal ores collected in the Okinawa Trough. These ore samples had different chemical compositions and mineral assemblages. As well as the potential for leaching, we also determined the toxicity of the leachates to a marine phytoplankton, Skeletonema marinoi–dohrnii complex (formerly classified into Skeletonema costatum,[12,13] one of the ecotoxicological standard test organisms used to evaluate seawater quality).[7,14] On the basis of our results, we discuss the possibility of metal and metalloid contamination through the dispersion of hydrothermal ores into the surface layer and their potential effects on marine phytoplankton primary production. These are important potential issues related to seafloor metal-mining.

Results and Discussion

Release of Metals and Metalloids from Mineral Ore Particulates

The leachates contained large amounts of Mn, Fe, Cu, Zn, As, Cd, Sb, and Pb (Table ). The leachates from all ore samples commonly contained Zn and Mn, whereas Cd was detected from all leachates except that from the Ba-rich ore (HPD1313G05). The Fe–Zn–Pb-rich (HPD1313G04) and the Zn–Pb-rich zero-age (HPD1355R04) ores released Pb. Only the Ba-rich ore released As and Sb.

Table 1

Chemical Composition of Leachates from Ores (Means ± Standard Deviation of the Triplicate)

	Fe–Zn–Pb-rich ore (HPD1313G04)		Ba-rich ore (HPD1313G05)		Fe-rich ore (HPD1311G06)		Zn–Pb-rich zero-age ore (HPD1355R04)
(a) 5 min Shaking Time
pH	4.3		6.8		4.8		6.7
Mn (mM)	0.0108	±0.0002	0.0118	±0.0009	0.17	±0.02	0.118	±0.005
Fe (mM)	4.9	±0.1	0.34	±0.02	n.d.		n.d.
Cu (mM)	n.d.a		n.d.		0.48	±0.06	n.d.
Zn (mM)	3.5	±0.1	0.87	±0.05	70	±9	2.2	±0.1
As (mM)	n.d.		0.26	±0.01	n.d.		n.d.
Cd (mM)	0.0103	±0.0003	n.d.		0.19	±0.02	0.0063	±0.0003
Sb (mM)	n.d.		0.038	±0.002	n.d.		n.d.
Pb (mM)	0.224	±0.006	n.d.		n.d.		0.094	±0.006
(b) 6 h Shaking Time
pH	4.6		6.6		4.9		6.8
Mn (mM)	0.0198	±0.0003	0.0129	±0.0001	0.1640	±0.0003	0.084	±0.001
Fe (mM)	5.62	±0.02	0.100	±0.002	n.d.		n.d.
Cu (mM)	n.d.		n.d.		1.187	±0.001	n.d.
Zn (mM)	6.69	±0.02	1.03	±0.01	62	±1	3.67	±0.01
As (mM)	n.d.		0.459	±0.003	n.d.		n.d.
Cd (mM)	0.0263	±0.0002	n.d.		0.188	±0.001	0.01376	±0.0001
Sb (mM)	n.d.		0.101	±0.001	n.d.		n.d.
Pb (mM)	0.231	±0.001	n.d.		n.d.		0.089	±0.002
(c) 18 h Shaking Time
pH	5.2		6.4		4.9		6.7
Mn (mM)	0.0142	±0.0001	0.0145	±0.0003	0.1576	±0.0006	0.155	±0.003
Fe (mM)	7.6	±0.2	0.135	±0.009	n.d.		n.d.
Cu (mM)	n.d.		n.d.		1.03	±0.02	n.d.
Zn (mM)	4.42	±0.07	1.11	±0.03	62.8	±0.7	5.3	±0.1
As (mM)	n.d.		0.38	±0.01	n.d.		n.d.
Cd (mM)	0.0201	±0.0003	n.d.		0.181	±0.001	0.00095	±0.0001
Sb (mM)	n.d.		0.096	±0.006	n.d.		n.d.
Pb (mM)	0.223	±0.001	n.d.		n.d.		0.103	±0.001

n.d. = not detectable (below the limit of detection).

Among all leached metals and metalloids, Zn showed the highest concentrations in most of the leachates produced under these experimental conditions. The Zn concentration was higher in the leachate from the Fe-rich ore (HPD1311G06) than in the leachates from the Fe–Zn–Pb-rich, Ba-rich, and Zn–Pb-rich ores.

In hydrothermal ores, Zn is generally present as a monosulfide mineral, sphalerite.[15] Small amounts of Mn and Cd are present in sphalerite as impurities;[16] consequently, the amounts of Mn and Cd in the ores were positively correlated with that of Zn (Figure S1a). As expected, the concentrations of Mn and Cd in the leachates were also positively correlated with that of Zn (Figure S1b). These findings indicate that sphalerite in the ores was the main source of Zn and also of Mn and Cd.

Figure shows the leaching ratios of each metal and metalloid from the solid ore samples. The leaching ratios of Mn and Zn from Ba-rich and Fe-rich ores were significantly high, even though sphalerite was not found in Ba-rich and Fe-rich ores (Table ). However, the leaching ratios of Mn, Zn, and Cd were significantly low in the leachates from the Zn–Pb-rich and the Fe–Zn–Pb-rich zero-age ores, which contained large proportions of sphalerite. Such different leaching ratios from different types of ores might imply that metal leaching under these experimental conditions was not because of direct dissolution from sphalerite. The other major minerals in the ore samples such as pyrite (an Fe sulfide mineral) in the Fe-rich ore and chalcopyrite (a Cu–Fe sulfide mineral) in the Zn–Pb-rich zero-age ore showed similar leaching characteristics. We did not detect Fe in the leachate from the Fe-rich ore containing pyrite, nor did we detect Cu from the Zn–Pb-rich zero-age ore containing chalcopyrite.

Figure 1

Leaching ratios of metals and metalloids from solid ore samples.

Table 2

Mineral Assemblage of Ore Samplesa

	HPD1313G04	HPD1313G05	HPD1311G06	HPD1355R04
sphalerite	***			***
galena	**			**
anglesite	**			**
anhydrite				**
cubanite				*
chalcopyrite				*
marcasite				*
wurtzite				*
stannite				*
pyrite			***
tridimite			*
bianchite			*
barite		***
realgar		*

***abundant, **common, and *rare.

In general, sulfide minerals such as sphalerite, pyrite, and chalcopyrite frequently found in hydrothermal ores react with water and oxygen and release the metal ion and sulfate, as per the following equation[17] (where M is a divalent metal)

This oxidation reaction could be accelerated under aerobic water conditions, but the reaction rates are very slow.[18,19] The low leaching ratios from our sulfide mineral samples also indicate that the rate of such reactions is very slow. Consequently, direct dissolution of these metals from sulfide minerals would make only a minor contribution to the dissolved metals in the leachates.

Desorption is another mechanism for the intense release of metals and metalloids from ores. Desorption releases metals from sulfide minerals significantly faster than direct dissolution because the binding strength of metals in adsorption states is significantly weaker than that of metals in sulfide mineral states.[20,21] Under our experimental conditions, large amounts of metals and metalloids were released within 5 min of shaking (Table a), and their concentrations in leachates showed little change after 6 or 18 h of shaking. These results indicated that desorption greatly contributed to the release of metals from the ores into the solution.

In our experiment, the pH values of leachates from the Fe–Zn–Pb-rich, the Ba-rich, the Fe-rich, and the Zn–Pb-rich zero-age ores decreased to 4.3, 6.8, 4.8, and 6.7, respectively, after shaking for 5 min. Such rapid decreases in pH suggest that sulfide minerals had been oxidized, sulfuric acids had formed, and metals had been protonated on the surface of ores before our experiment, that is, during sample storage (deprotonation of weak acids, e.g., H2S and H2SO3, and hydrolysis of heavy metal ions, e.g., Fe3+ might also lead to decreased pH). The protonated metal ions would be adsorbed onto deoxidized sulfides[22] and other secondary minerals such as hydroxide mineral surfaces[23,24] by the formation of weak chemical bonds.

Adsorbed metal ions are easily desorbed via an ion exchange reaction involving hydrogen ions, as follows[17] (where ≡ indicates the mineral surface)

Studies on the ion exchange reaction on the surface of hydrous PbS and ZnS have concluded that significant amounts of Pb and Zn can be released into solution via this reaction.[25,26] The metal sulfide surface exhibits acid/base properties after hydration, and the metal ion is replaced by a highly reactive hydrogen ion. The result of this reaction is that metals adsorbed onto the mineral surface are easily and rapidly released (desorbed) into the solution. The ion exchange reaction occurs at pH values between 4 and 7.[17] The pH values of leachates in this study were 4.3–6.8. Therefore, we conclude that the process of ion exchange contributed to the rapid release of metals from the ores.

On the basis of the experimental evidence and the reactions shown above, most of the metals and metalloids in the leachates could not be directly dissolved from sulfide minerals in the ore during the short shaking time but would have been released via desorption reactions such as ion exchange.

Effect of Ore Leachates on Marine Phytoplankton

Figure shows the changes in the fluorescence of S. marinoi–dohrnii complex over time in different treatments. In this experiment, the algae were grown in multiwell plates. The fluorescence in the control wells showed relatively stable increases over time, reflecting the increase in cell density. Compared with control wells, those containing leachates at a concentration of less than 0.1% showed no obvious inhibition effects on diatom growth. We constructed dose–inhibition curves using the relative growth rate, which was calculated by normalizing the raw growth rates of each exposure well to that of the control well (Figure ). In wells containing leachates at concentrations > 0.1%, the inhibition effects were demonstrable (Figures and 3). In some cases (medium containing 10% Ba-rich, 0.5 and 1% Fe-rich, and 4% Zn–Pb-rich zero-age ores), the fluorescence intensities of the wells gradually and almost monotonously decreased during the experiment, implying that there was strong growth inhibition and either cell death or decomposition of the chlorophyll pigments (Figure ). We note here that the relative growth rates were shown as zero in Figure when negative changes in the fluorescence were recorded (Figure ).

Figure 2

Effect of different leachate concentrations on the growth of Skeletonema marinoi–dohrnii complex. (a) Ba-rich ore (HPD1313G05), (b) Fe-rich ore (HPD1311G06), and (c) Zn–Pb-rich zero-age ore (HPD1355R04).

Figure 3

Relative growth rates (μ) of Skeletonema marinoi–dohrnii complex after addition of ore leachates. Leachate concentrations: 0.01, 0.1, 1, 5, and 10% for Ba-rich ore (HPD1313G05); 0.01, 0.05, 0.1, 0.25, 0.5, and 1% for Fe-rich ore (HPD1311G06); and 0.01, 0.1, 1, 2.5, 4, and 5% for Zn–Pb-rich zero-age ore (HPD1355R04).

The leachate from the Fe-rich ore was the most toxic to S. marinoi–dohrnii complex (Figure ) and was lethal at concentrations below 1%. The leachate from the Zn–Pb-rich zero-age ore showed medium toxicity, but its toxicity increased markedly at concentrations higher than 4%. The leachate from Ba-rich ores also inhibited the growth of S. marinoi–dohrnii complex, and its inhibitory effect grew stronger with increasing concentrations.

Metals and metalloids in the leachates would contribute to the growth inhibition of S. marinoi–dohrnii complex, although the specific toxicants inhibiting growth have not been identified in this study. The half-maximal inhibition concentrations of metals and metalloids on Skeletonema costatum reported in previous studies are as follows: Zn, 2.2 μM; Cd, 1.2 μM; Pb, 0.094 μM;[27] Cu, 0.42 μM;[28] As, 0.17 μM;[29] and Sb, >34 μM.[30] The results of these studies indicated that Pb, Cu, and As are more toxic to S.costatum than Zn, Cd, and Sb. In the present study, the cell death for S. marinoi–dohrnii complex occurred when the following toxic elements were present at high concentrations in the culture medium: Pb (35.4 μM) in the leachate from the Zn–Pb-rich zero-age ores, Cu (5.9 μM) in the leachate from the Fe-rich ores, and As (45.9 μM) in the leachate from the Ba-rich ores. Therefore, these elements that leached from the ores inhibit the growth of S. marinoi–dohrnii complex.

Addition of the leachates from Fe-rich and Zn–Pb-rich ores to culture media (Daigo IMK medium) resulted in a decrease in pH from 8.5 to 7.1 and 7.7, respectively. Taraldsvik and Myklestad (2000) determined the effects of pH on the growth rate of S. costatum and found no significant difference in the growth rates at pH values 6.5–8.5.[31] In this study, therefore, the growth of S. marinoi–dohrnii complex was more likely inhibited by the metals and metalloids in the leachates than by changes in the pH of the growth medium.

The present study was conducted with S. marinoi–dohrnii complex, one of the suitable phytoplanktons as an ecotoxicological model organism, to evaluate the toxic effects of ore leachates. It should be noted that similar experimental surveys targeting representative species in open oceans might be necessary to resolve ecological impact on the primary production and biodiversity for future studies.

Importance for Environmental Impact Assessment of Seafloor Metal-Mining Using Leaching Test

Evaluations of the leachability of metals and metalloids from ore particulates into seawater and their toxicity to marine organisms are important to design practical mining plans and processes that minimize the impacts of seafloor metal-mining on marine environments.

Recently, Simpson and Spadaro (2016) have also suggested the necessity to evaluate the potential toxicity of leachates from sulfide minerals. They demonstrated that Zn, Pb, and Cu were released from the reference materials of sphalerite, galena, and chalcopyrite particulates, respectively, and showed that these metals in ionic forms in solution were toxic to marine benthic invertebrates (bivalve and juvenile amphipods) commonly found on the seafloor of deep oceans.[2]

Our study demonstrated the potential leachability of metals and metalloids not from reference materials but from natural hydrothermal ores, and their toxicity to marine phytoplankton commonly found in the surface environment. A crucial finding in this study is that the chemical composition and concentrations of the leachates cannot be easily predicted by those of the ores. Therefore, bulk analysis of ores is insufficient. Instead, leaching tests are essential to predict the potential release of metals and metalloids from hydrothermal ores for seafloor metal-mining, as is the case for land-mining wastes and contaminated sediments.[32,33]

Metal and metalloid sulfide minerals are under anoxic conditions when hydrothermal ores are left undisturbed on the seafloor. However, the sulfide minerals on the surface of the hydrothermal ore samples used in this study would have been oxidized by air, and metals and metalloids would have transformed into labile states during sample storage. This is one reason why large amounts of metals and metalloids were released into the leachate solutions.

In the SMS-mining model proposed by several contractors such as Nautilus Minerals Ltd. and Japan Oil, Gas and Metals National Corporation (JOGMEC), mineral ores are crushed using a seafloor mining tool, raised from the seafloor through a riser pipe, and then stored on a mining support vessel.[34−36] On the vessel, the sulfide minerals will gradually be oxidized by exposure to air and rain water. Their transformation into leachable phases during storage means that they will release toxic metals and metalloids if they are released into seawater.

There may be low dissolution of metals and metalloids from anoxic (fresh) ores than from oxidized ores; however, the evaluation of leaching potential from oxidized hydrothermal ores is important for thorough marine environmental impact assessments. Therefore, our results provide reference values for the maximum amounts of metals and metalloids that might be leached when hydrothermal minerals are oxidized and accidentally spilled into the surface environment.

Conclusions

We showed that metals and metalloids were rapidly released from oxidized hydrothermal ores with different leachabilities. It is natural that different ores have different leachabilities. However, our results also showed that the compositions of the leachates did not completely reflect the chemical compositions and concentrations of the ores and that the different leachates had different degrees of toxicity to the test phytoplankton. These results suggest that analyses of the bulk chemical composition of ores will not provide enough information to predict the potential release of metal and metalloids in the surface layer. For more accurate predictions, ores should be subjected to leaching tests as well as chemical analyses, as performed in this study.

The possible environmental risks of full-scale seafloor mining and the measures to mitigate these risks are still under discussion. One environmental risk is the metal contamination and its adverse effects on the marine ecosystem. The results of our study will be useful for future predictions of environmental impacts of mining on the surface environment.

Materials and Methods

Hydrothermal Mineral Samples

The four hydrothermal ore samples (HPD1313G04, HDP1313G05, HDP1311G06, and HDP1355R04) used in this study were provided by the Japan Agency for Marine-Earth Science and Technology (JAMSTEC). These samples were collected from the hydrothermal vent fields at the Izena Hole (NT11-15 cruise, August 2011) and the Iheya North Knoll (NT12-06 cruise, March 2012) by the Hyper Dolphin 3K, a remotely operated vessel owned by JAMSTEC (Figure and Table S1). Photographs of the collected hydrothermal ores are shown in Figure . The occurrence of sulfide deposits associated with high-temperature fluid vents has been reported in other studies.[11,37−40] The mineral assemblages of the ores (Table ) were determined by X-ray diffraction (XRD, Rigaku Geigerflex RAD-IA, Tokyo, Japan) using Ni-filtered monochromatic Cu Kα radiation (λ = 1.5418 Å) with 2θ angle between 5° and 70°. Metal and metalloid compositions of the ores (Table ) were determined using an inductively coupled plasma-mass spectrometry (ICP-MS, 8800 ICP-QQQ, Agilent Technologies, Inc., CA, USA). For these analyses, ore samples (10–20 mg) were dissolved in HF/HCl/HNO3 (1/1/2, v/v/v) at 25 °C overnight and then dried on a hot plate at 80–100 °C.[41,42] Metals and metalloids in a low oxidation state are readily oxidized by HNO3 and HClO. The reactants were mixed with aqua regia and dried on a hot plate at 80–100 °C. After cooling to 25 °C, the residue was dissolved in HNO3 and diluted with ultrapure water before the ICP-MS analysis. Duplicate ore samples were digested and analyzed to confirm the reproducibility, although reference material of seafloor hydrothermal ores was not analyzed in this study.

Figure 4

Sampling sites at Izena Hole and Iheya North Knoll, Okinawa Trough.

Figure 5

Ore samples used for leaching experiment. (a) HPD1313G04, (b) HPD1313G05, (c) HPD1311G06, and (d) HPD1355R04.

Table 3

Chemical Composition of Ore Samples (mmol/kg)

	HPD1313G04	HPD1313G05	HPD1311G06	HPD1355R04
Mn	3.8	0.28	5.9	47
Fe	4700	39	5400	1600
Cu	37	0.67	84	490
Zn	2300	29	1200	4300
As	1.9	179	71	16
Cd	5.3	0.029	3.9	6.8
Sb	0.72	27	1.8	3.4
Pb	460	0.94	1.9	510

Sample HPD1313G04 consisted of Fe (4700 mmol/kg), Zn (2300 mmol/kg), Pb (460 mmol/kg), and Cu (37 mmol/kg) and mainly comprised sulfide minerals, such as sphalerite and galena. Sample HPD1355R04 consisted of various sulfide minerals (sphalerite, galena, chalcopyrite, wurtzite, and marcasite) and sulfate minerals (anhydrite and anglesite). Sample HPD1355R04 was a piece of an infant chimney (“zero-age”) and mainly consisted of Ca-sulfate minerals.[42] Sample HPD1355R04 contained Zn (4300 mmol/kg), Fe (1600 mmol/kg), Pb (510 mmol/kg), and Cu (490 mmol/kg). Pyrite was the dominant mineral in sample HPD1311G06. Sample HPD1311G06 contained significant amounts of Fe (5400 mmol/kg) and Zn (1200 mmol/kg), with small amounts of Cu (84 mmol/kg), As (71 mmol/kg), and Pb (1.9 mmol/kg). Barite was the most abundant mineral in sample HPD1313G05. Compared with the other samples, sample HPD1313G05 contained smaller amounts of Fe (39 mmol/kg), Zn (29 mmol/kg), Cu (0.67 mmol/kg), and Pb (0.94 mmol/kg) but high concentrations of As (179 mmol/kg) and Sb (27 mmol/kg).

On the basis of the chemical compositions and mineral assemblages of the ores, samples HPD1313G04, HPD1313G05, HPD1311G06, and HPD1355R04 were designated as Fe–Zn–Pb-rich, Ba-rich, Fe-rich, and Zn–Pb-rich ores, respectively, in this study.

Leaching Experiments

Each ore sample was crushed and powdered manually before leaching experiments using tungsten carbide and agate mortars and was sieved through 1/16 mm mesh. Approximately 3 g of the powdered sample was stirred into 30 mL of artificial seawater (Daigo’s SP, Nihon Pharmaceutical Co. Ltd., Tokyo, Japan; pH = 8.2; dissolved oxygen = 5.7 mg/L) in an acid-cleaned polypropylene centrifuge tube (50 mL) under dark condition, and then the tube was reciprocally shaken at 200 rpm per min at 25 °C for 5 min, 6 h, or 18 h. The shaking for 6 h is prescribed by the Japanese Ministry for the Environment as the standard method. The shaking for 5 min and 18 h are recommended by the United States Environmental Protection Agency and the United States Geological Survey, respectively. The chemical components of the artificial seawater are shown in Table S2. Samples were prepared in triplicate for each combination. After shaking, the solid phase was separated by centrifugation (1880g for 10 min) and collected by filtration through a polyvinylidene difluoride membrane filter (0.45 μm). The pH of the leachates was measured using a pH meter (Horiba D-75, Horiba, Ltd., Kyoto, Japan) calibrated at pH values of 4.01 and 6.86. A portion of the leachate was acidified with HNO3 and preserved in a polypropylene tube. Metals and metalloids present at detectable levels in the leachates (i.e., Mn, Fe, Cu, Zn, As, Cd, Sb, and Pb) were selected after screening using ICP-atomic emission spectroscopy (ICAP-75, Nippon Jarrell-Ash Co. Ltd., Kyoto, Japan) and were quantified using ICP-MS. The limit of detection (nM) was calculated using the regression equation that fit the standard calibration curve:[43] 0.28 for Mn, 1.3 for Fe, 0.12 for Cu, 2.4 for Zn, 0.58 for As, 0.027 for Cd, 0.084 for Sb, and 0.027 for Pb.

Phytoplankton Growth Inhibition Assay

Growth inhibition assays of the three leachates prepared from HPD1313G05, HPD1311G06, and HPD1355R04 were conducted using an axenic marine diatom, S. marinoi–dohrnii complex NIES-324 (formerly classified into S. costatum)[12,13] obtained from the Microbial Culture Collection at the National Institute of Environmental Studies (http://mcc.nies.go.jp). Skeletonema costatum is one of the most popular algal test organisms for the toxicity tests of contaminants in seawater. The test organism was maintained and precultured before growth inhibition tests in the Daigo IMK medium (Nihon Pharmaceutical Co., Ltd., Tokyo, Japan) prepared with 90% natural seawater and 10% distilled water, under a white fluorescent light with a photon flux density of 70 μmol photons m–2 s–1 and a 12 h/12 h light/dark photoperiod at 20 °C. The precultured cell suspension in the logarithmic growth phase was diluted with a fresh culture medium (1:19), and then 0.9 mL aliquots were transferred into Falcon 48-well microplates (Corning, Inc., NY, USA). The initial fluorescence of the cell suspension in each well was determined using a microplate reader (MTP-810 Lab, Corona Electric Co. Ltd., Ibaraki, Japan) (excitation, 430 nm; emission, 680 nm) as a proxy of the chlorophyll a content and/or cell concentration on Day 0. Subsequently, each cell suspension in duplicate wells was exposed to one of the three leachates at multiple concentrations ranging from 0.01 to 10%. Six control wells were also prepared (cell suspension but no leachate). The microplates were incubated for 3 days under the culture conditions described above. Daily changes in fluorescence intensities were determined to calculate the growth rate (μ) of the test organism in each well, using the following equationwhere F and F0 are the fluorescence intensities on Day n and Day 0, respectively, and t and t0 are the number of days. We note here that the background fluorescence emitted from the polystyrene microplate and the media solution was removed by subtracting blank measurements (from wells containing only medium) before calculating F and F0.