Combining immunotherapy and radiotherapy in lung cancer.

Immunotherapy has become standard of care in advanced non-small cell lung cancer (NSCLC) in a number of settings. Radiotherapy remains an important and potentially curative treatment for localized and locally advanced NSCLC not amenable to surgery. While the principal cytotoxic effect of ionizing radiation is via DNA damage, the effect on tumour microenvironment, promoting dendritic cell presentation of tumour-derived antigens to T cells stimulating the host adaptive immune system to mount an immune response against tumours cells, has become of particular interest when combining immunomodulating agents with radiation. The 'abscopal effect' of radiation where non-irradiated metastatic lesions may respond to radiation may be immune-mediated, via radiation primed anti-tumour T cells. Immune priming by radiation offers the potential for increasing the efficacy of immunotherapy and this is subject to on-going clinical trials underpinned by immunological bioassays. Increasing understanding of the interaction between tumour, radiation and immune cells at a molecular level provides a further opportunity for intervention to enhance the potential synergy between radiation and immunotherapy. Applying the potential efficacy of combination therapy to clinical practice requires caution particularly to ensure the safety of the two treatment modalities in early phase clinical trials, many of which are currently underway. We review the biological basis for combining radiation and immunotherapy and examine the existing pre-clinical and clinical evidence and the challenges posed by the new combination of treatments.