Uncovering trophic positions and food resources of soil animals using bulk natural stable isotope composition.

Despite the major importance of soil biota in nutrient and energy fluxes, interactions in soil food webs are poorly understood. Here we provide an overview of recent advances in uncovering the trophic structure of soil food webs using natural variations in stable isotope ratios. We discuss approaches of application, normalization and interpretation of stable isotope ratios along with methodological pitfalls. Analysis of published data from temperate forest ecosystems is used to outline emerging concepts and perspectives in soil food web research. In contrast to aboveground and aquatic food webs, trophic fractionation at the basal level of detrital food webs is large for carbon and small for nitrogen stable isotopes. Virtually all soil animals are enriched in 13 C as compared to plant litter. This 'detrital shift' likely reflects preferential uptake of 13 C-enriched microbial biomass and underlines the importance of microorganisms, in contrast to dead plant material, as a major food resource for the soil animal community. Soil organic matter is enriched in 15 N and 13 C relative to leaf litter. Decomposers inhabiting mineral soil layers therefore might be enriched in 15 N resulting in overlap in isotope ratios between soil-dwelling detritivores and litter-dwelling predators. By contrast, 13 C content varies little between detritivores in upper litter and in mineral soil, suggesting that they rely on similar basal resources, i.e. little decomposed organic matter. Comparing vertical isotope gradients in animals and in basal resources can be a valuable tool to assess trophic interactions and dynamics of organic matter in soil. As indicated by stable isotope composition, direct feeding on living plant material as well as on mycorrhizal fungi is likely rare among soil invertebrates. Plant carbon is taken up predominantly by saprotrophic microorganisms and channelled to higher trophic levels of the soil food web. However, feeding on photoautotrophic microorganisms and non-vascular plants may play an important role in fuelling soil food webs. The trophic niche of most high-rank animal taxa spans at least two trophic levels, implying the use of a wide range of resources. Therefore, to identify trophic species and links in food webs, low-rank taxonomic identification is required. Despite overlap in feeding strategies, stable isotope composition of the high-rank taxonomic groups reflects differences in trophic level and in the use of basal resources. Different taxonomic groups of predators and decomposers are likely linked to different pools of organic matter in soil, suggesting different functional roles and indicating that trophic niches in soil animal communities are phylogenetically structured. During last two decades studies using stable isotope analysis have elucidated the trophic structure of soil communities, clarified basal food resources of the soil food web and revealed links between above- and belowground ecosystem compartments. Extending the use of stable isotope analysis to a wider range of soil-dwelling organisms, including microfauna, and a larger array of ecosystems provides the perspective of a comprehensive understanding of the structure and functioning of soil food webs.