Stillbirth rates across three ape species in accredited American zoos.

Stillbirths, or births of infants that died in the womb, represent a failure of the materno-feto-placental unit to maintain a suitable fetal environment. Typical studies of nonhuman primate (NHP) stillbirth patterns are primarily descriptive and focus on macaques (genus Macaca). Thus, less is known about other NHP species and rarer still are studies that examine possible biological factors that influence stillbirth rates across taxa. To examine possible contributors to stillbirths in great apes, we analyzed 36 years (1980-2016) of historical data documenting births of zoo-housed chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes, N = 391), western lowland gorillas (Gorilla gorilla gorilla, N = 491), and orangutans (Pongo spp, N = 307) in accredited zoological parks in the United States. The average number of births for each of the 446 mothers was 2.7, resulting in a total of 1,189 births with 143 stillbirths (12%). Stillbirths represented 12% of chimpanzee births, 13% of gorilla births, and 10% of orangutan births. We used generalized linear mixed-effects models to assess possible relationships between stillbirth likelihood and mother origin (wild- versus captive-born), age, and genus. Across taxa, older mothers were more likely to have a stillbirth (p = 0.004). While these results are likely influenced by both biological and management-related factors (e.g., selective captive breeding), they may be useful to population managers in evaluating pregnancy risks for great apes. Captive settings and archival studbook data such as these may provide a unique opportunity to further explore this topic.