Mitochondria, Temperature, and the Pace of Life.

Life history strategies, physiological traits, and behavior are thought to covary along a "pace of life" axis, with organisms at the fast end of this continuum having higher fecundity, shorter lifespan, and more rapid development, growth, and metabolic rates. Countergradient variation represents a special case of pace of life variation, in which high-latitude organisms occupy the fast end of the continuum relative to low-latitude conspecifics when compared at a common temperature. Here, we use Atlantic killifish (Fundulus heteroclitus) to explore the role of mitochondrial properties as a mechanism underlying countergradient variation, and thus variation in the pace of life. This species is found along the Atlantic coast of North America, through a steep latitudinal thermal gradient. The northern subspecies has faster development, more rapid growth, higher routine metabolic rate, and higher activity than the southern subspecies when compared at a common temperature. The northern subspecies also has greater mitochondrial respiratory capacity in the liver, although these differences are not evident in other tissues. The increased respiratory capacity of liver mitochondria in northern fish is associated with increases in the activity of multiple electron transport complexes, which largely reflects an increase in the amount of inner mitochondrial membrane per mitochondrion in the northern fish. There are also differences in the lipid composition of liver mitochondrial membranes, including differences in cardiolipin species, which could also influence respiratory capacity. These data suggest that variation in mitochondrial properties could, at least in part, underlie variation in the pace of life in Atlantic killifish.