Infrequent use of medicinal plants from India in snakebite treatment.

Snakes have fascinated humankind for millennia. Snakebites are a serious medical, social, and economic problem that are experienced worldwide; however, they are most serious in tropical and subtropical countries. The reasons for this are 1) the presence of more species of the most dangerous snakes, 2) the inaccessibility of immediate medical treatment, and 3) poor health care. The goal of this study was to collect information concerning rare, less utilized, and less studied medicinal plants. More than 100 plants were found to have potential to be utilized as anti-snake venom across India. Data accumulated from a variety of literature sources revealed useful plant families, the parts of plants used, and how to utilize them. In India, there are over 520 plant species, belonging to approximately 122 families, which could be useful in the management of snakebites. This study was conducted to encourage researchers to create herbal antidotes, which will counteract snake venom. These may prove to be an inexpensive and easily assessable alternative, which would be of immense importance to society. Plants from families such as Acanthaceae, Arecaceae, Apocynaceae, Caesalpiniaceae, Asteraceae, Cucurbitaceae, Fabaceae, Euphorbiaceae, Lamiaceae, Rubiaceae, and Zingiberaceae are the most useful. In India, experts of folklore are using herbs either single or in combination with others.

Introduction

For centuries, plants have been important in the treatment of a wide variety of illnesses, diseases, and disorders.1, 2 The inherent traditional systems of medicine, along with information from conservative folklore, are serving a large section of the populace, particularly in rural and tribal areas, despite the dawn of modern medicine. Ethnobotany is the scientific and systematic study of traditional knowledge and customs of people concerning plants and their medical, religious, and other uses. Studies involve literature surveys, detailed investigations, analyses, interpretation, and conclusions concerning various research and scientific data. An ethno-medico-botanical appraisal includes discussions with natives, as well as utilization of available facts and data regarding folklore literature. Indigenous medicinal plant species have been added to several recent drug formulations and preparations for fundamental health care.

Methodology

The current study provides a collection of information on medicinal plants that grow and can be utilized in various regions of India for snakebite treatment. The appropriate literature, including books, journals, and reports, was reviewed. The relevant information was searched using various electronic catalogs (e.g., Google Scholar, Medline, NISCAIR, Science Direct, Scirus, and Scopus) and keywords such as “anti-venom activity,” “ethno botany,” “ethno pharmacology,” “Indian,” “indigenous,” “medicinal plants,” “snake bite,” and “survey.” It was difficult to include all the information regarding medicinal plants used for snakebite treatment, and as such this study focused on information that would be easily accessible for researchers. Over the last few decades, people from different tribal communities have been recoding and maintaining data regarding traditional and tribal knowledge related to the use of medicinal plants. However, this information has, until now, not been made available to the modern world. In this regard, information on tribal and local use of various plants has been made available and a systematic “ready to use” list of medicinal plants has been formed. The list consists of data, including biological source(s), family, local name(s), part(s) used, method(s) of preparation/formulations, and reference(s). In this review, care was taken to ensure the identification of the herbal medicinal plants that were in the original resources (Table 1).

Table 1

List of Medicinal Plants Used for Treatment of Snakebites in India

Biological source	Family	Local names	Part used	Method of administration	References
Ajuga bracteosa Wall Ex Benth	Lamiaceae	Neelkanthi, Nilkanthi, Kanasar	Rt	Root extract is used as an antidote	29
Ailanthus excels Roxb	Simaroubaceae	Peeyamaram	Lv	Decoction of the leaves with the leaves of Aristolochia indica prepared and mixed with goats’ milk to drink for treatment of snakebites	30, 31
Alangium lamarbi Thwaites	Alangiaceae	–	Br	Bark paste is taken orally	32
Alangium salvifolium (Linnf) Wang	Alangiaceae	Ankol, Ankula, Alangi, Aankla	Wp, R, Lv, St, Br	Approximately 15 g of bark ground + 10–12 black peppers mixed with 72 g animal fat given every 2 h to cure snakebiteRoot bark decoction is given internally to treat snakebite	33, 34, 35, 36
Albizia lebbeck (Linn) Benth	Fabaceae	Siris, Kala, Siris, Segta/Siris, Hombage, bhandi	Lv, Br, Fl, Wp, R	Paste of bark is used	31, 37, 38, 39, 40
Allium cepa Linn	Liliaceae	Piyaz, Venkayam	Bb	The paste made from fresh skin of bulb is used for external application (5 d)	38, 41
Allium sativum Linn	Liliaceae	Lasoon	Bb	Bulb is made into paste and given orally	41, 42
Alsophila glabra Sensu Bedd	Cyatheaceae	–	Rz	Unknown	43
Alstonia scholaris (Linn) RBr	Apocynaceae	Saptparni, Chatni, Satina, Barap lei, Lawthong	Lv, Br	Bark decoction given orally	44, 45, 46, 47
Alstonia venenata RBr	Apocynaceae	Analivegham, Elaipalai, Analivegham	St, Br, Rt	Tablets made from paste of stem bark are taken with cow's urineDecoction also taken orally	48, 49
Alternanthera sessilis (Linn) R Brown ex DC	Amaranthaceae	KandiliJari	St, Lv	External application of stem and leaf paste is used	50, 51, 52
Amaranthus blitum Linn	Amaranthaceae	Chaulai	Rt	Root powder is used	39
Amaranthus spinosus Linn	Amaranthaceae	Kateli, Mullikeerai, Kateli, Chaurai, Kanta-bhaji, Kateli-chaulai	R, Lv Wp	Paste of leaves is applied locally	39, 53, 54, 55, 56
Amaranthus viridis Linn	Amaranthaceae	Khutora, Chaulai	Lv, St	Leaf/stem paste is applied externally	53
Ammannia baccifera Linn	Lythraceae	Neerumulli	Wp	Whole plant powder mixed with hot cow's milk to drink	57
Amomum aromaticum Roxb	Zingiberaceae	Borelachi, Chakma, Bodaelachi	Sd	Seed paste is used	58
Amomum subulatum Roxb	Zingiberaceae	Bara elachi	Pd	Boil 2–3 pods and drink the extract twice daily for a week	58
Amorphophallus campanulatus Blume: ex DC	Araceae	Bhabdi	Tb	The tubers are crushed and applied externally	59
Amorphophallus commutatus (Schott) Engler	Araceae	–	Tb	Unknown	60
Andrographis alata Nees	Acanthaceae	Periyanangai	Lv	A handful of fresh leaves or juice is taken orally	61
Andrographis echioides Nees	Acanthaceae	Nadnaur, Gusum puru, Gopuranthangi	Wp	Paste of whole plant is given orally with waterIt is also applied externally	62
Andrographis lineate Wallich ex	Acanthaceae	Siriyanangai, Periyanangai, Malaiveempu	Wp, Lv	Paste of leaves is applied externallyAbout 3 grams of whole plant paste is directly administered orally	63, 64, 65
Andrographis paniculata (Burm f) Wall Ex Nees	Acantheceae	Kalmegh, Bhumi neem, Neelaveppu, Nilavaembu, Chirianangai, Sirianangai, Periyanangai	Lv, Lv, Wp	A decoction of the leaves with the leaves of Andrographis alata is givenDecoction or extract is applied externally	30, 63, 65, 66, 67, 68, 69, 70, 71, 72, 73, 74
Anisomeles indica (Linn) Kuntze	Lamiaceae	Paeimiratti	Lv	Paste of leaf is taken	75
Anisomeles malabarica (Linn) RBr	Lamiaceae	Siriyapaeyamarati, Peymarutti	Lv	The leaf or juice mixed with water to drink	75
Annona squamosa Linn	Annonaceae	Seethaphala	St, Br, Lv	Unknown	57, 76
Anogeissus acuminata Wall	Combretaceae	Dhavra	Pl	Poultice is applied	77
Anthocephalus cadamba Miq	Rubiaceae	Kadam	Wp	Unknown	39
Antidesma bunius (Linn) Spreng	Phyllanthaceae	Tuaitit	Lv	Unknown	78
Arachne cordifolia (Decne) Hurusawa	Euphorbiaceae	–	Lv, St	Unknown	79
Ardisia humilis Vahl	Myrsinaceae	Kumbreth	Br	Crushed paste is applied	80
Argemone Mexicana Linn	Papaveraceae	Sialkatahi, Datturi, Pilikateli, Bharbhand, Brahmathandu	Lv, Sd, Rt	Leaf/seed decoction given orally (7 d)Root paste is also used	53, 81, 82
Ariesaema barnesii C Fischer	Araceae	Kaattuchenai	Tb	Dried tuber of this plant and whole plant paste of Andrographis paniculata (1:1) applied over wounds twice a day	69
Arisaema flavum (Forsskal) Schott	Araceae	Sapp googli	Tb	The tubers are crushed and a paste is made that is applied	83
Arisaema jacquemontii Blume	Araceae	Khaprya	Fr, Rz	Unknown	79, 80
Arisaema leschenaultii Bl ume	Araceae	Havina jola	Rt, Lv, Fr	Fruit/leaf and root paste is applied on the spot of snakebite thrice a day for about 8 d.	81
Arisaema tortuosum (Wall) Schott	Araceae	Haap roodakaro, Halida, Kotukand, Chambus, Chakrata	Tb, Bb	Paste of the tuber in applied.Infusion of fresh bulb is taken orally thrice daily	60, 84, 85
Aristolochia bracteolate Lamk	Aristolochiaceae	Kalipad, Aduthinnapalai	Lv, Rt	Leaf paste applied externally, as well as infusion taken orally	60, 75, 85, 86
Aristolochia indica Linn	Aristolochiaceae	Sapasan, Garalika, Garudi, Nagbel, Arkamul, Birthwort, Ishwarmul, Bhedi-Janete, Karalakam, Kaliparh, Kaligulesar, Eashwari, Eshwarballi, Perumarindu, Karuda kodi, Garudakodi, Thalaisuruli	Rt, Wp	Fresh roots are ground along with Rouwalfia serpentina mixed in water taken twice daily (3 d)Root powder is snuffedRoot juice is given orally and root paste applied locally	3, 34, 54, 61, 62, 71, 75, 87, 88, 89, 90, 91, 92, 93, 94, 95, 96, 97
Aristolochia tagala Cham	Aristolochiaceae	Samta, Valiya, Eswaramulli, Perumarunt, Hukodi	Rt	Crushed and mixed with water and drunk, as well as fresh roots ground and applied externally on affected area	80, 98
Artocarpus heterophyllus Lam	Moraceae	Kanthal	Pn	Drink 1 cup juice thrice daily	94
Artocarpus hirsutus Lam	Moraceae	–	Br	Bark paste made with coconut oil and applied	99
Artocarpus integrifolia	Artocarpaceae	Kothal, Theibong	Fr	Unknown	78
Asparagus racemosus Willd	Liliaceae	Halavu, Makkala, Beru, Satvari	Rt	Paste of the fasciculate root is applied externally	3, 100
Asystasia gangetica Linn	Acanthaceae	Silandhinaayagam	Lv	Leaf paste is given	90
Azadirachta indica A Juss	Meliaceae	Vembu, Veempu, Neem	Fl, Br, Lv, Fr	Decoction/paste is prepared and given orally (7 d)	38, 54, 59, 101
Bacopa monnieri (Linn) Pennell	Scrophulariaceae	Brahmisak, Nirbirami, Neeripirami, Brahmi	Br, Lv, Wp	Juice mixed with castor oil is applied externally to treatLeaf powder decoction mixed with hot cow's milk taken orally	3, 86
Barleria cristata Linn	Acanthaceae	Kali, Brenkad	Lv, R, Sd	Leaf juice is applied	50
Barleria prionitis Linn	Acanthaceae	Kattukanagambaram	Rt	Decoction taken orally	49
Boerhaavia diffusa Linn	Nyctaginaceae	Punarnawa, Dabbal bhaji, Chotwa bhaji, Patharchatta, Biskhapara, Ittsitt	Lv, Wp	Leaf juice is also applied locally and taken orally for 7 d	39, 50
Boerhavia repens Linn	Nyctaginaceae	Ponownowa	Rt	Unknown
Bombax ceiba Linn	Bombaceae	Ilavu, Kate savar, Semal, Simul, Semar, Phunchawng, Simbal, Pikriisii	Fls, RBr, Sd	Paste of flowers/fruits/leaves is applied on the bitten spot	39, 80
Bryophyllum pinnatum Kuntz	Crassulaceae	Dupartenga	Lv	Unknown	53
Buchanania lanzan Spr	Anacardiaceae	Char, Chironji, Achar, Chironji, Chirongi, Pial	Br	Unknown	37
Butea monosperma (Lamk) Taub	Fabaceae	Palash, Dhak, Parsa, Plash	Br, Lv, Fl, Gu, Sd, St, Br, Re, Lx	Bark paste applied on swellingPaste of one seed in 10 mL lemon juice is given orally	38
Caesalpinia bonduc (Linn) Roxb	Caesalpiniaceae	Poonainagam, Karanj	Sd	Seeds paste applied externally (2 weeks)	39, 95
Calotropis gigantea (L) R Br	Asclepiadaceae	Dev rui, Aak, Ekke, Akanda, Erukku, Aakdo, Safedaakdo, Gadsa, Akanda, Erukku	R, Lx	Root bark is ground into paste and made into pills and given orallyLeaf latex is applied externally	43, 76, 77, 90
Calotropis procera (Ait) R Br	Asclepiadaceae	Rui, Rai, Aakori: Aakra, Biliekke, Ekka (Safed Ak), Rakta arka, Vellerukku, Akra, Aak, Madar, Safed, Madar, Gadsa, Akwan	Lx, Rt, Young, Bd	Leaf latex is applied on bitten areaRoot is crushed and given to drink and applied externally	75, 99
Cannabis sativa Linn	Cannabaceae	Bhang	Lv	Leaf paste is used	38
Capparis decidua (Forssk) Edgew	Capparaceae	Kareel, Karerua	Fr, Sd	Fruits are eaten	39, 92
Capsicum annum Linn	Solanaceae	Marchiya	Rt	Unknown	41
Cardiospermum luridium Linn	Sapindaceae	Moddacoatan	Wp	The whole plant powder mixed with goat's milk to drink	75
Carica papaya Linn	Caricaceae	Papita, Amrurbhanda, Papita	Fr, Sd, Lx	Unripened fruit of Carica papaya is taken and the skin is removed by slicing, salt is then rubbed over it, and the fruit is then placed over the bite with sliced portions in contact with the bite and bandagedFew drops of latex are applied to snakebite wound for quick healing	34
Cassia alata Linn	Caesalpiniaceae	Senna, Khor-pat daopata, Seemaiyagathi	Lv	Paste of leaves is applied externally, as well as given orally	78
Cassia fistula Linn	Caesalpiniaceae	Amaltash, Dhanba, Amaltas, Sonarkhi, Kakke	Fr, Sd, Lv, St, R, Br	The paste & decoction of root bark with black pepper is given orallyPaste of stem bark applied on bitten placeFruit pulp is used	37, 38, 39, 62
Cassia occidentalis Linn	Caesalpiniaceae	Kasaundi, Kasondi, Peeperambi, Thagarai	Rt, Lv	Oral administration of root paste	38, 39, 67
Cassia sophera Linn	Caesalpiniaceae	Sularai	Rt	Unknown	86
Cassia tora Linn	Caesalpiniaceae	Takala, Sickle, senna, Chakawad, Chakunda, Tagarai, Bon medelwa	Rt, Lv	Root paste & leaf decoction is applied externally (30 d)	39, 53
Catharanthus roseus G Don	Apocynaceae	Nithya pushpa	Rt	Root paste mixed with pepper and lime is applied externally	81
Cayratia trifolia (Linn) Domin	Vitaceae	Khhata nimbi	Tb	Paste of tuber applied on the affected area	84
Centratherum anthelminticum (L) Kuntze	Asteraceae	Kattujeerakam	Sd	Unknown	66
Cheilocostus speciosus (JKeonig) CDSpecht	Costaceae	Keu, Chengalva kostu	Rz	Unknown	95
Chlorophytum laxum R Br	Liliaceae	Neerootikizangu	Tb	Tuber paste applied on affected area	89
Cissampelos pareira Linn	Menispermaceae	Patha, Patindu, Batindu, Patha, Urikkakodi, Chokipar, Tijumala, Ekladi Poa	Tb, Rt	Root paste with long pepper is prescribed once daily for 5 d	92, 93, 96
Citrullus colocynthis (Linn) Schrad	Cucurbitaceae	Kadva inravarna, Tumba, Gadumba, Tumbo, Indrayan	Sd, Rt, Fr	Seed oil used externally, as well as root crushed and given to drink	33, 38
Clematis triloba Linn	Ranunculaceae	Badarsiti, Jangali, Bhoda, Bendar, Siti	Rt	Root paste is applied	77
Cleome gynandra Linn	Cleomaceae	Hul-hul	Lv, Wp	Unknown	39
Cleome viscose Linn	Capparidaceae	Nayivelai	Lv	Leaf paste applied externally	30
Clerodendron inerme Gaertn	Verbenaceae	Vishaparihari	Rt	Root paste mixed with lime is applied twice daily for a week	81
Clitoria ternatea Linn	Fabaceae	Ruhu tuhu, Aparajita, Syahiful, Aparajita, Gokarni, Aparajita, Bili, Shankhapushpa	R	The root extract is taken with the root of Aristolochia indica and Rauwolfia serpentine	39, 87
Cocculus villosus DC	Menispermaceae	Nagdun, Vachan karalla	Rt	The root bark extract is given internally and applied	3, 38
Commelina bengalensis Linn	Commelinaceae	Kana simolu	R	Roots are useful	53
Corallocarpus epigaeus (Rottl & Willd) Hook f	Cucurbitaceae	Aathalai, Marsikand, Kollan, Kova killangu	Rt, Tb	Root decoction given internally 3–7 times	64, 68, 97
Costus speciosus (Koen) Sm	Costaceae	Keon, Kanda, Kebuk, Mahalakri, Jamlakhuti, Pewa, Jamlakhuti, Khongbam, Takhelei, Sumbul, Jomalkhuti, Myonpobap	Rt, Rz	Rhizome and root paste is used internally & externally	58, 60, 80, 87
Crateva magna (Lour) DC	Capparaceae	Jong-sia	Br	Chewed and applied on bitten area	80
Curculigo orchioide Gaertn	Amaryllidaceae	Nilapanai, Nela tengu, Kali musli	Rt, Tb	Root paste use topicaly	39, 80, 81
Curcuma amada Roxb	Zingiberaceae	Amba haldi	Rz	The powder of the rhizome is applied locally	84
Curcuma aromatica Salisb	Zingiberaceae	Bon haladhi, Lam-yaingang	Rz	Paste of rhizome taken with water	58
Curcuma caesia Roxb	Zingiberaceae	Kalahalud, Kalahaldi krushna kedara, Neelkanth	Rz	The dried rhizome powder is mixed with powdered seeds of Andrographis paniculata and applied	34, 58
Cyathula tomentosa Roth	Amaranthaceae	–	Lv	Unknown	79
Cyphostemma auriculatum (Roxb) Singh & Shetty	Vitaceae	Kali-vel	Br	Bark is taken in some water and taken once a day (7–8 d)	96
Daemia extensa RBr	Asclepiadaceae	Vaelipparuththi	Rt	Powder of root is given	90
Datura metel Linn	Solanaceae	Kala Dhatura, Dhutura	Sd, Rt, Lv	Extract of roots are taken with garlic	39, 70, 80, 81
Delphinium denudatum Wall ex Hook f & Thomson	Ranunculaceae	Nirbishi	Rt	Unkown	41
Desmodium gangeticum (Linn) DC	Fabaceae	Kareti, Salparni	R	Half-cup root decoction is taken orally	39, 60
Dichrostachys cinerea Linn Wight & Arn	Araceae	Vedathalai, Kheri	Lv, Rt	Root powder is usedLeaves are crushed into paste and applied locally	54
Dicliptera paniculata (Forssk) IDarbysh	Acanthaceae	Chebeera	Wp	Unknown	95
Dioscorea pentaphylla Linn	Dioscoreaceae	Lalvala vahrikand	Tb	Extract is also given	60
Dregea volubilis (Lf) BenthEx Hookf	Apocynaceae	Dudipala, Bandi gurija	Lv	Unknown	95, 96
Drymaria cordata (L) Willd Ex Roem & Schult	Caryophyllaceae	Mecanachil, Theiphelwang, Kynbat thalap	Wp	Whole plant is used (crushed paste applied)	80
Dryopteris cochleata CChr	Aspidiaceae	Chhoti Bhulan	Wp, Lv, R	The whole plant crushed in a bowl and the extract is given orally twice a dayThe leaves and roots are applied on the bite wound	43
Eclipta alba (Linn) Hassk	Asteraceae	Manchal karisalankanni, Bhringraj, Maka	Wp	Whole plant juice is given orally (30 d)	38
Elaeodendron glaucum Pers	Celastraceae	Ratangaur, Bhairao, Niuri Mamri, Jamrasi Mukarthi (Bhutphal)	Br, Rt	Roots and bark of plant made into paste taken orally with cow's milk	62
Elettaria cardamomum Maton	Zingiberaceae	Elassi	Sd, Pd	Decoction	58
Eleusine indica (L) Gaertn	Poaceae	Malkantari-Mundari	Rt	20 g root is crushed along with 10 g Zingiber officinale and nine black pepper pieces; paste is divided into two equal parts One part with a few drops of honey is administered orally and the other part is applied on the snake bitten area	92
Enicostemma axillare (Lam) A Raynal	Gentianaceae	Vellarugu	Rt	5–10 drops of root extract is poured in the spot	91
Ervatamia coronaria Stapf	Apocynaceae	–	Rt, Br	Root and bark infusion mixed with milk and butter, filtered, and used	99
Ervatamia heyneana Cooke	Apocynaceae	Kadunandibattalu	Rt	Root paste mixed with lemon juice & applied	81
Euphorbia neriifolia Linn	Euphorbiaceae	Mausa sij, Dudhbol, Thor, Thundar, Manasa	Lx, Rt	Latex is applied locallyRoot is used with black pepper	54, 80
Ficus benghalensis Linn	Moraceae	Badd, Bar, Bargad	Lx, Ap, Rt, Fr	Unknown	38
Ficus glomerata Roxb	Moraceae	Medi	St, Br	The stem bark paste is applied	31
Ficus hirta Vahl	Moraceae	Tamangaddu	Rt	Root crushed & rubbed	47
Ficus racemosa Linn	Moraceae	Gular	Br	The stem bark is pounded with whey and applied locally	54
Ficus religiosa Linn	Moraceae	Peepal	Lv, Br, Fr	25 g stem bark and 8–10 cloves are pounded with animal fat (pure ghee) and given 4–6 times a day	35, 37, 59
Ficus tinctoria Forstf	Moraceae	Tella barnika	Lv	Unknown	31
Fimbristylis spathacea Roth	Cyperaceae	Hathia	Rt	The fresh root is taken internally & externally	87
Gloriosa superb Linn	Liliaceae	Vadhavadiyo, Vach, Nag, Nagardi, Gowri, Huvu, Kalihari, Kalihari, Karianaga, Agnishikha, Kariyari, Kalappa, Kilangu	Tb, Rt, Rz, Sd	Root paste or tuber paste is applied externally (2–5 d)	38, 39, 81, 82
Habenaria commelinifolia Wall	Orchidaceae	Ankra	Tb	The tuber paste is applied	59
Hedychium spicatum SM	Zingiberaceae	Aithur, Takhellei-hanggam-mapan	Rz, Rt	Root decoction is used	58
Helicteres isora Linn	Sterculiaceae	Hateri, Murud sheng, Maror Phali	Br, Rt	Bark power is given in snakebite	39, 57
Heliotropium indicum Linn	Boraginaceae	Nakkipoo	Lv	The leaf juice mixed with hot water is used	75
Heliotropium marifolium Koen ex Retz	Boraginaceae	Choti-santri	Wp	Unknown	82
Heliotropium supinum Linn	Boraginaceae	Goma	Ap	Pounded aerial portions are applied externally and its juice is given orally in a dose of 5 mL at frequent intervals	35
Hemidesmus indicus (Linn) R Br	Asclepiadaceae	Suganti Jad, Anantmul, Choti dudhia, Anantamul, Analsing, Nannari, Anantamul	Rt, Lv	Aqueous extract of root is prepared in water and given orally & root paste is applied two or three times a day	92, 93
Heteropogon contortus (Linn) P Beauv	Poaceae	Lapia, Lapida, Soorwala	Rt	Root paste is taken orally Poultice of root paste is also applied on the bitten portion for early cure	60
Holarrhena pubescens (Buch-Ham)Wall ex GDon	Apocynaceae	Pandhara Kula, Bolmatra	Sd, Rt, St, Br	Paste is applied on the bitten area two times a day	80
Hordeum vulgare Linn	Poaceae	Jau, Jav	Gr	Unknown	54
Hyptis suaveolens (Linn) Poit	Lamiaceae	Ban Tulsi	R	Unkown	39
Impatiens glandulifera Royle	Balsaminaceae	Hillu	Fls	Unknown	83
Ipomoea obscura (L) Ker Gawler	Convolvulaceae	Siruthaalikkodi	Lv	Leaf juice is administered	91
Jatropha gossipifolia Linn	Euphorbiaceae	Kattamanakku	Lv, St, Br, Sd, Lx	Unkown	55
Kyllinga monocephala Rottb	Cyperaceae	Safad, Nirbashi	Un	Unknown	38
Lantana camara Linn	Verbenaceae	Ragadd, Gajukampa, Arippu	R, Fl, St, Lv, Wp	Decoction of roots, flower, and stem are used	75
Leucas aspera Spreng	Lamiaceae	Durum bon, Gumma, Bhodaki, Tumbe, Thumbai, Gadde tumbe, Thumbi, Thumbai, Kennathumbai	Wp, Lv, Rt	Leaf paste or crushed leaf is taken both externally & internally to treatThe root juice is mixed with goat's milk three times a day (4 d)	73, 75, 81, 90, 99, 100
Leucas cephalotes (Roth) Spreng	Lamiaceae	Goma, Gumbi, Gumma	Wp	Decoction of whole plant (twice a day for 6 d)	38, 39
Lindenbergia muraria (Roxb) Brühl	Scrophulariaceae	Chatti	Wp	Paste of leaf is applied externally	82
Lobelia nicotianaefolia Heyne	Campanulaceae	Heddumbe, Kadu hogesoppu	Lv, Lx	Latex is applied externally	81, 100
Luffa acutangula (Linn) Roxb	Cucurbitaceae	Torai, Peerkan, Jangli Torai	Fr, Tn, Sd	Tendrils & seed paste is used	39, 90
Malva sylvestris Linn	Malvaceae	Bendi gida	Lv	Extract of leaf mixed with lime juice given	99
Martynia annua Linn	Martyniaceae	Bagnakha	Rt	Decoction	67
Mimosa pudica Linn	Mimosaceae	Lajwanti, Thotta, Sinungi, Uskadpoda, Chhuimui/Lajwanti, Thottal surungi, Thottalvadi, Thottasiniki	Rt, Lv, Wp	Whole plants are made into extract in drinking water and shaken well and filtered Extract of whole plant is given twice a day for one day onlyLeaves are ground and made into paste and applied over affected area	31, 39, 47, 90
Mirabilis jalapa Linn	Nyctaginaceae	Jahai juhi	Tb	The solution of tuber paste is given orally	62
Mitragyna parvifolia (Roxb) Korth	Rubiaceae	Neer-kadamba, Kadamba	Br, Fr	Unknown	57
Momordica charantia Linn	Cucurbitaceae	Karela, Pakakai	Wp, Sh, Rt	Juice of tender shoot or root is applied	42
Momordica dioica Roxb Ex Willd	Cucurbitaceae	Kakoda, Kankoda, Madi hagala kayi	Rt	Root tuber pounded with lime is applied externally on bitten spot daily thrice for 7 d	81, 82
Moringa oleifera Lam	Moringaceae	Sajina, Nugge, Sahigan, Mungna, Sainjna, Sahjan, Sainjnad, Murungaih	Rt, Sd, Wp, St, Br, Lv	Fresh extract of bark is taken orallyBark root tincture apllied externally (3 d)	3, 54
Mucuna pruriens (Linn) DC	Fabaceae	Kevach, Konch	Sd, Fr, Rt	Aqueous extract of root is given orally twice a day	39
Musa paradisiaca Linn	Musaceae	Vazhai, Valaimaram, Valai	Br, St, skin, Br	A plant extract is given orally	30, 68
Nerium indicum Mill Gard	Apocynaceae	Kaner, Kaner/Kanail, Lal kanher	Lv, Br Rt	The root is crushed with roots of Capparis sepiaria and Datura innoxia and paste applied externally thrice for 5 d	39, 54
Nymphoides hydrophylla O Kuntze	Menyanthaceae	–	Lv	Leaf paste is used	52
Ochna obtusata DC	Ochnaceae	–	Rt	Powder of root drunk with hot water frequently	80
Ocimum adscendens Wild	Lamiaceae	Heddumbe	Rt	Unknown	99
Ocimum basilicum Linn	Lamiaceae	Naitulasi, Kali Tulsi	Wp	Whole plant decoction orally given (week)	39
Ocimum sanctum Linn	Lamiaceae	Barpai, Tulasi	Lv, Rt, Wp	A paste of Ocimum leaf with the rhizome of Curcuma longa L (Zingiberaceae) is applied externallyLeaf juice oral (8 d)	3, 38, 51
Ophiorrhiza mungos Linn	Rubiaceae	Havina gedde, Pambupoo, Keeripundu	Rt	Root juice is given (twice a day for 6 d	61, 98
Opuntia dillenii (Ker-Gawl) Haw	Cactaceae	Sappathikali	St, Br, Fr, Wp	The fruit paste is applied	75
Ottelia alismoides (L) Pers	Verbenaceae	–	Lv	Unknown	57
Oxalis debilis HBK var corymbosa (DC) Lour O martiana Zucc	Oxalidaceae	Khatti Booti	Wp	Unknown	39
Pandanus nepalensis St John	Pandanaceae	–	Lv	Unknown	42
Parnassia nubicola Wall ex Royle	Parnassiaceae	–	Tbs, Rt	Unknown	79
Pavetta indica Linn	Rubiaceae	Therani	Lv	A leaf paste is used externally	68
Pergularia daemia (Forrsk)Chiov	Apocynaceae	Veliparuthi	Rt, Lv	The decoction of the leaves is used	30, 75, 95
Peucedanum anamallayense Cl	Apiaceae	Padachurukki	Wp	Whole plant paste along with cow's urine is taken	48
Phyllanthus acidus (Linn) Skeels	Euphorbiaceae	Kawlsunhlu	Rt	Decoction of roots is given	78
Piper nigrum Linn	Piperaceae	Bolkaalu, Menasina kaalu, Maricha, Kali-mirch, Milagu	Fl, Sd, Fr	Seed powder mixed with butter is given orally against snakebiteFlower paste with ghee given orally (4 d)	3, 54
Pistia stratiotes Linn	Araceae	Jalkumbhi	Sd	Decoction of seeds is given	67
Pittosporum tetraspermum Wight & Arn	Pittosporaceae	Analivegam	St, Br	Paste of stem bark is taken with cow's urine	48, 66
Plantago erosa Wall	Plantaginaceae	Chhakur-blang	Lv	Poultice of the leaves is given	80
Platanthera susannae Lindl	Orchidaceae	Nela site huvu	Rt	In combination with lime and salt, the paste of root tubers is applied on the affected area	81
Pouzolzia indica Gaud	Urticaceae	Dudhmor	Wp	Unknown	53
Prosopis cineraria Druce	Fabaceae	Khejdi, Vanni maram	Br	Paste of bark tied on the affected area	71
Quercus leucotrichophora A Camus	Fagaceae	Banj	Sd	Unknown	41
Randia dumetorum (Retz) Poiret Linn	Rubiaceae	Kaare	Rt	Paste with waterThe root of this plant and leaves of Acacia suma (Mimosaceae) are pounded with salt and applied externally	81
Rauvolfia serpentina (Linn) Benth ex Kurz	Apocynaceae	Nagbel, Bhuin karuan, Patal-garuda, Bhuikurma, Sarpagandha, Keramaddinagaddi, Sutranabhi, Sarpagandha lairusich, Sarpagandha	Lv, Rt	Leave juice used as antidoteRoots and leaf buds crushed with milk to make into paste used both internally and externally on affected area	34, 39, 43, 62, 76, 99
Rhinacanthus nasutus (L) Kurz	Acanthaceae	Nagamalli	Lv	Fresh leaves are taken orally, as well as the paste of the leaf applied externally	49, 61
Rivea hypocrateriformis (Desr) Choisy	Convolvulaceae	Parh	Wp, Rt	The plant juice/paste is orally taken	95, 96
Rubus niveus Thunb	Rosaceae	–	Fr	Unknown	79
Ruta graveolense Linn	Rutaceae	Nagadali	Rt	Root paste is used	99
Sanseveria roxbhurgiana Schultes F	Agavaceae	Saganaara, Gaju kura	Rt	Tuberous root paste is applied on the area of snakebite	97
Saraca asoca (Roxb) De Wilde	Ceasalpiniaceae	Ashok, Asoka	Sd	Unknown	40
Sauromatum venosum (Ait) Kunth	Araceae	Halida, Samp ki dawa	Tb	The paste of tuber is applied on the affected area	33, 84
Saussurea costus (Falc) Lipsch	Asteraceae	Kuth	Rt	Unknown	41
Sesamum indicum Linn	Pedaliaceae	Til	Sd	Seeds are mixed with butter, ginger powder, and oil and given orally	54
Sida acuta Burm	Malvaceae	–	Wp	The whole plant extract is given internally and applied externally	3
Sida caprinifolia Linn	Malvaceae	Arivaal mania poondu	Lv	Leaf paste is used	90
Sida cordifolia Linn	Malvaceae	Kungyi	Wp	Unknown	82
Solanum nigrum Linn	Solanaceae	Makoi	Rt	Paste of dried root is applied	54
Solanum xanthocarpum Schard & Wendl	Solanceae	Bhui ringani, Bhat kataiyan, Choti kateli	Lv, Rt	Fresh leaf extract (paste or decoction) of this species is given	101
Soymida febrifuga A Juss	Meliaceae	Rohina	St, Br, Br, Rt	Fresh bark of this plant together with root of Holarrhena pubescens (1:1) are made into paste and mixed with drinking water given orally three times a day for 3 d	31
Sterculia urens Roxb	Sterculiaceae	Karaya	Br	Unknown	60
Strychnos nux-vomica Linn	Loganiaceae	Kajara, Kaasarka, Kanjiram, Vishamushti, Etti, Visakkotai, Yeti	Rt, Sd	Root bark juice in cow's milk is externally rubbed 3–4 times a day to treatThe seed powder is also used	89
Strychnos potatorum Linn	Leguminoceae	Thethamkottai	Sd	Seed powder given orally	49
Tabernaemontana coronaria RBr	Apocynaceae	Nandibattalu huvu	Rt	The crushed root mixed with salt and turmeric is applied	81
Tabernaemontana divaricata (Linn) RBr	Apocynaceae	Nanjatte, Maddarasa, Kathona, Amli, Tengtere, Tetul	Rt, Lv Sd	The extract of the seed is given, as well as crushed paste applied on bitten area	80
Tamarindus indica Linn	Caesalpiniaceae	Puli	Sd, Rt	Unknown	51, 55
Tectona grandis Linn	Verbenaceae	Sagwan	Lv, Br	Unknown	44
Terminalia arjuna (DC) Wight & Arn	Combertaceae	Arjun, Marutham, Vellamarthu	Br	Bark paste applied externally (5 d)	45
Thottea siliquosa (lamk) Ding Hou	Aristolochiaceae	Kuttalvayana, Padamchurukkialpam, Kuttilavayana	Rt, Lv	Roots and leaves decoction are given orally	66, 89
Tiliacora acuminata (Lamk) Miers	Menispermaceae	Kappa teega	Lv	Leaf paste is applied on the affected area	31
Trewia nudiflora Linn	Euphorbiaceae	Panigambhar	Br	Pounded bark is taken internally	88
Trichisanthes cucumerina Linn	Cucurbitaceae	Nagfani beldi	Tb	Powder of tuber is applied locally	84
Tridax procumbens Linn	Asteraceae	Munya arxa, Dagad Ful	Lv	The leaves are crushed and the juice is dripped on the wound of snakebiteJuice is taken orally after its dilution with some quanty of water	62, 76
Tylophora indica (Burm f) Merr	Asclepiadaceae	Nangilai, Asthamakodi	Lv, Rt	Paste of leaf and root is mixed with equal amount of root paste of Rauvolfia serpentina and applied externally on the spot, as well as leaf juice alone taken internally	31, 63, 65
Urginea indica (Roxb) Kunth	Liliaceae	Koliknada	Cm	Half of the corm is ground with some quantity of black pepper seeds & animal fat (pure ghee) and given in three doses within a day	35
Ventilago maderaspatana Gaertn	Rhamnaceae	Rakta pichula	Br	The infusion of bark is given orally	43
Vitex negundo Linn	Verbenaceae	Nukki, Lakkigida, Karinochi notchi, Nishindi, Shet nishinda	Br, Rt, Lv, Sd	Leaf paste applied over the bitten area (5 d), as well as root extract is given with warm water	81
Vitex penduncularis Wall	Verbenaceae	Charaigorh	Br	Decoction of the bark is given orally at 30 min intervals	62, 88
Zingiber rubens Roxb	Zingiberaceae	Pauphok	Lv	The leaves are torn into thin strips and rope is made that is used to tie up parts of snakebite to prevent flow of venom in blood	45

Abbreviations used – Ap, arial portion; Bb, bulb; Bd, bud; Br, bark; Cm, corm; Fl, flower; Fr, fruit; Gr, grain; Gu, gum; Lv, leaves; Lx, latex; Pd, pods; Pl, poultice; Pn, penduncle; Re, resin; Rt, root; Rz, rhizomes; Sd, seeds; Sh, shoot; St, stem; Tb, tuber; Tn, tendril; Un, unknown; Wp, whole plant; d, day(s); h, hour(s).

The Indian subcontinent and snakes

The Republic of India (3rd largest country in Asia and 7th by area in world) is a multilingual country home to a diverse culture with a rich and glorious heritage. India's land border covers 151,067 km, which is shared with neighboring countries, including Bangladesh (border shared = 40,967 km), China (3488 km), Pakistan (3323 km), Nepal (1751 km), Myanmar (1643 km), Bhutan (699 km), and Afghanistan (106 km). India's coastline covers 75,166 km, and land area including island territories covers more than 3,287,260 km2. Some of these countries were part of India before the partition.

India has numerous and diverse medico-herbal plants. They are dispersed, depending upon geographical and ecological conditions, across the country. Of these, more than 1500 species have demonstrated significant medicinal properties. Envenomation, especially by snakebite, is a serious worldwide public health crisis.5, 6, 7, 8 Inappropriate and unwarranted treatment results from reasons such as the failure to identify the snake species (venomous or non-venomous), which increases the risk of complications. According to the Integrated Taxonomic Information System (ITIS), Elapidae and Viperidae are the two major families of venomous snakes. Elapidae consists of 325 species distributed in 61 genera. Viperidae includes 224 species distributed in 22 genera. In and around India, approximately 216 species of snakes belong to these families, and only 52 are known to be poisonous.9, 10 The ‘Big Four’ snakes cause the largest number of snakebite deaths on the Indian subcontinent. The ‘Big Four’ snakes consist of Russell's viper (Daboia russelii; Marathi translation, ghonas tawarya), Indian cobra (Naja naja; Marathi translation, Nag), saw-scaled viper (Echis carinatus; Marathi translation, phoorsa), and common krait (Bungarus caeruleus; Marathi translation, manyar kanadar) (Fig. 1). Apart from these big four, the hump-nosed viper is also hazardous. Envenomation is a ‘choice’ and voluntary action or reaction by snakes. Their bite is a natural protective defense mechanism. All venomous snakes have the ability to bite without including venom (dry bite). Farmers, fieldsmen, and outdoor workers find suffering from snakebites to be an occupational hazard. It is also a leading problem in rural areas of India. It is estimated that snakebite poisoning causes approximately 50,000 deaths annually, and the number is likely higher because not all cases from rural areas are reported.10, 15

Fig. 1

Big Four Russell's viper (Daboia russelii, Marathi – ghonas, tawarya), Indian cobra (Naja naja, Marathi – Nag), saw-scaled viper (Echis carinatus, Marathi – phoorsa), and the common krait (Bungarus caerules, Marathi – manyar, kanadar). Images reprinted with permission from indiansnakes.org.

Snake venom and snake anti-venoms

Snake venom is one of the most intense and ‘mysterious’ biological fluids within the animal kingdom, causing complex medical effects. This is because of the presence of complex mixtures of proteins, peptides, and contain at least 25 enzymes.16, 17 Venom is a complicated combination of proteins (both enzymatic and non-enzymatic), peptides, and small organic compounds, such as acetylcholine citrate and nucleoside.18, 19 There are many potential effects of snake envenomation on humans; however, a few broad categories of major clinical significance are:

Systemic myolysis

Flaccid (drooping) paralysis

Coagulopathy and hemorrhage

Cardiotoxicity

Renal damage or failure

Local tissue injury at the bite site

Each of these may cause a number of secondary effects, and each is associated with potential morbidity and mortality. Similar to other modern medicines, anti-venom can have side effects. In addition, it takes too long to develop and is expensive. Strict and specific conditions are required for long-term storage. Because of the lack of availability of antidotes and anti-venoms at any specific time, alternatives from plant sources (which are abundant) should developed. Adequate information about herbal preparations or formulations is needed. The Indian system of medicine, especially Ayurveda medicine, has thrown light on this subject. A variety of plants mentioned in Ayurvedic literature are useful in snakebite treatment. Considering that treatment at a proper clinic or hospital is at an unreachable distance for approximately 80% of victims, these people are primarily treated or handled by a traditional practitioner, or Vaidya, or other tribal herbalist. If the situation is beyond their control, they must proceed to a nearby clinic or hospital for advanced therapy. The traditional practitioners rely on various plants for treatment because they are knowledgeable about a variety of plant species that are helpful against snakebites and associated complications.3, 21 In the management of snakebites, there are two main aspects:

Proper first aid treatment and

Anti-venom/anti-ophidian treatment, such as serum therapy

Because of side effects or adverse events (e.g., anaphylactic reactions), serum sickness and sometimes the anti-venom itself produces complications during treatment.

Diversity of India

World Health Organization (WHO) stated that almost 80% of the population in developing countries depend on various herbal plants for the management of diverse diseases and illnesses because of the lack of modern health care services.3, 23 In addition, for prime health care, people are dependent on their earnings and improvement of the standard of living. More than 65,000 plant species are traditionally used in addition to modern medicines. In India, Ayurveda is the most widely practiced system of medicine, which has a marvelous diversity of plant information. The Republic of India has 29 states and seven union territories comprising an area of 3,287,263 km2. The Indian people speak a variety of languages, including 23 regional languages: Assamese, Bengali, Bodo, Dogri, Gujrathi, Kannada, Kashiri, Kokborok, Konkani, Maithili, Malayalam, Manipuri, Marathi, Mizo, Nepali, Odia, Punjabi, Sanskrit, Santali, Sindhi, Tamil, Telugu, and Urdu. Apart from these, other local or tribal people have their own tribal or native language per locality. India encompasses different ethnic groups with over 539 core indigenous people living in diverse territories. It has varied cultures, foods, traditions, and religious rituals, which causes separations among the people. Furthermore, there is a wealth of knowledge of conventional medicine, particularly herbal and folk medicine, for treatment of snakebites.

Clinical significance of snakebite

Traditional herbalists treat people earlier and use plants to cure various complications and ailments. The snake is still not perfectly understood to worldwide researchers. The word ‘snake’ invokes feelings of fear because of an instinctive human emotion and its image is powerful and primal. Snakes are as fascinating to psychologists, pharmacologists, and clinicians as they are to evolutionists. Snakes are either poisonous or nonpoisonous. Snakebites can be considered as environmental or occupational hazard because they occur regularly and repeatedly, with overwhelming frequency, particularly in remote rural areas in tropical developing nations. It is estimated that each year in India there are more than 80,000 snake envenoming and 11,000 deaths, which makes India a seriously affected nation. Snakes are present on each continent, except Antarctica. Mishal et al listed some critical and medically significant (clinical) conditions and syndromes related to snakebite envenomation as follows:

Local or restricted area envenoming (swelling of the affected part) with hemorrhage or difficulty clotting (this is particularly seen in Viperidae envenomation).

Local or restricted area envenoming (viz. swelling) with hemorrhage or difficulty clotting damages the kidneys or contributes to infections that cause neuro-paralysis and shock.

Local or restricted area envenoming (such as swelling) along with paralysis.

Paralysis with/without local or restricted area envenoming.

Paralysis with urine that is dark brown in color in addition to acute kidney injury.

Composition of snake venom

Medical science occasionally ignores community health values. Snake venom is rich in protein and peptide toxins. These proteins have a definite action on numerous tissue receptors. The wide range of action of snake venoms makes them clinically demanding and scientifically interesting, in particular, for drug design. The mysterious biological nature of venom and its complex medical effects have long captured human imagination and inquisitiveness. Venoms, mainly snake venoms, have been the focus of ancient mythology, early biomedical speculation, folklore, and scientific investigation, in addition to pharmacognosy. The venom of any species may have more than 100 diverse toxic and non-toxic proteins and peptides, along with non-protein toxins (amines, carbohydrates, lipids, and additional small molecules). Proteins and peptides comprise approximately 90 ± 05% of the dry weight of venom. Supplementary components in the venom consist of carbohydrates, metallic cations, nucleosides, biogenic amines, and a small amount of free amino acids and lipids. The venom of snakes contains at least 25 enzymes, although no single snake venom has all of them. Enzymes are responsible for catalyzing numerous precise biochemical reactions that occur in living matter. They are the mediators upon which cellular metabolism depend. Among the available choices, the more important snake venom enzymes are as follows: 5′-nucleotidase, acetylcholinesterase, arginine ester hydrolase, collagenase, DNase, hyaluronidase, lactate dehydrogenase, l-amino acid oxidase, NAD nucleosidase, phosphodiesterase, phospholipase A2 (A), phospholipase B, phospholipase C, phosphomonoesterase, proteolytic enzymes, RNase, and thrombin-like enzymes. All these enzymes are not present in all venoms. Among the peptides originating in snake venoms are pre-synaptic and postsynaptic neurotoxins, myotoxins, cytotoxins, cardiotoxins, and potassium channel-binding neurotoxins, along with platelet aggregation inhibitors (disinterring).3, 26, 27

Snakebite treatment in India

Because India is the only country of its kind in terms of the diversity of geographical, environmental, and climatic features, it has a rich and wide-ranging flora of medicinal herbal plants that have been used since the Vedic period. A huge portion of the nation still uses plants as home remedies in rural and remote areas for a number of illness, infections, and diseases, including snakebites. India is a nation with mega diversity; moreover, approximately 10% of world's species are indigenous to India. Because India has a prosperous, flourishing, enlightening legacy, almost all Indians have directly and indirectly been connected with a variety of herbs during their ritualistic ceremonies and various cultural activities. A recent study found that rich ethno-medicinal knowledge could be gathered from the community members, which would provide a great advantage to future generations by documenting and preserving the knowledge. This requires that the ethno-medicinal plants used by the native tribal people should be comprehensively revised and the proper significance of these plant species assigned, such that they can be managed and conserved for the welfare of mankind. Reliable progress has been made in that direction. Snakebite treatment in India (before partition) consisted of various snake antivenom drugs and/or combination formulations, such as Surucuina (1908), Ofidina (1909), Viborina (1910), an unknown plant used by the Civil Surgeon of Hugli (1912), an ointment made by Mr M Robert of Bordeaux (1914), Goor Boinchee Antitoxicum (1915), Tiriyaq (1916, repeated in 1929), white champa pod and root (1920), Payam-i-Hayat (February 14, 1921), El Elixir Antiviperino Lexin (1923), remedy by firozuddin (June 1928), and lobelin (1929) that have been tested since 1908 in various pharmacological labs across India, then British India and the Indian subcontinent. The severity of snakebite poisoning is always a catastrophic issue for the sufferer and physician. Usually death will result because of many reasons, such as failure of the patient to reach the hospital, lack of appropriate treatment, difficulty in production, deployment, and accessibility of current snake anti-venoms. The mortality rate depends largely on the species of snake. Elapid poisoning (viz. cobra and krait) always has a higher mortality rate than that of Viperidae poisoning (saw-scaled viper and Russell's viper). The point to be considered is that an approximately 70-kg healthy person will succumb to only a small quantity of venom, and typically it takes the venom 6 seconds or less to reach the heart. In various ancient texts and literature, more than 320 medicinal plants and more than 180 different combinations are reported to have snake anti-venom activity. However, after comprehensive evaluation, all of these Ayurvedic preparations from medicinal plants had no snake anti-venom properties.

Vaidya – Indian herbalist, physician, compounder and dispenser

In the Indian system of medicine, the Vaidya is known as doctor of herbs, who makes a diagnosis of illness and compounds medicinal preparations, such as asava, aristha, churna (powders), lotions, liniments, pills, syrup, and taila. Furthermore, many old-aged persons (such as a grandmother) are familiar with the application of various herbs. Practitioners of Ayurveda believe that every plant on the Earth has some significant medicinal property for the purpose of the good of the world; the right person just has to show you. The practitioner of Ayurveda states (Naasti Moolam Anaushadhim translation Every plant on earth has a medicinal property). Allopathy (the treatment of disease by conventional means, that is, with drugs having effects opposite to the symptoms) or modern medicinal systems sometimes has a number of undesired effects from drugs, such as adverse drugs reactions. Therefore, an increasing number of people in developed and developing countries are using medicinal plants for some betterment. The formulations or plant preparations rely on the availability of the plant part(s). Usually preparation is made by crushing the plant or its part(s) by using stones or pieces of wood. Often a juice or paste is made to apply to the affected area or sometimes is given orally. A number of villagers or Vaidya have a specific stone set called a “Paata-Varvantaa” (Fig. 2). The Paata is a Marathi language word meaning base on which the plant or its part(s) are kept. The Varvantaa is a Marathi language word meaning a pastel-like stone to crush the plants or its part(s). The present review is an attempt to cover the traditional/ethnobotanical medicinal plants utilized in various parts of India for snakebites. Apart from previous reviews, this will also help future researchers to recognize the herbal approach for the treatment of snakebites. In Table 1, the data from the current analysis is presented. Arrangement of medicinal plant species is in alphabetical order.

Fig. 2

Paata Varvanta, the traditional Indian mortal pestle (Google).

Conclusion

Mother Nature has given humans a most precious gift in medicinal plants. The natives of India are people who are very connected to Nature, as Indians are “celebration affectionate” people. In almost every festival in India, there is connectivity of human beings to animals and Mother Nature. The local tribes understand biodiversity and serve as a source of knowledge regarding proper use of medicinal plants. For various reasons, the focus altered from modern medicine to Ayurveda herbs and medicinal plants for various diseases or disorders. India is homeland for such a marvelous variety of diversity. In cultural heritage, India has a long history of medicinal plant utilization. This review has attempted to cover remarkable similarities among medicinal plants that are used across India. In our study, a total of 523 plant species belonging to 122 families were reported for treatment of snakebites. Furthermore, this review encompasses some plants that are rarely or less often used. The most common families include Acanthaceae, Apocynaceae, Arecaceae, Asteraceae, Caesalpiniaceae, Cucurbitaceae, Euphorbiaceae, Fabaceae, Lamiaceae, Rubiaceae, and Zingiberaceae (Fig. 3). For a long time, the traditional healers have practiced using herbal traditional medications for snakebite treatment, as well as numerous other diseases. Biological source(s), family, local name(s), part(s) used (Fig. 4), method of preparation, and reference(s) are provided to increase the ease of availability for the data.

Fig. 3

Graphical representation showing number of plant according to various families (Upasani et al, 2017).

Fig. 4

Plant parts used in treatment of Snake bite. (Upasani et al, 2017) (Rt, root; Lv, leaves; Bk, bark; Sd, seed; Fr, fruit; St, stem; Wp, whole plant; Ot, other parts).

There is a lot of information yet to be gathered and formulated. Ethno-botanical investigation is the future branch that will aid in maintaining good health for all mankind because much is still hidden and there are chances to make new phytochemical phytopharmacological drug discoveries, which will become the most reliable progression in the direction of utilization of medicinal plants for the treatment of various illnesses.

Conflict of interest statement

The authors declare no conflict of interest.

Sources of funding

Nil.